Phase transitions

Phase transitions and developmental stages
Marinus Jan Marijs

During a phase transition of a given medium, certain properties of the medium change, often discontinuously, as a result of the change of essential conditions. This leads us to changes in collective sociological, economic, technologic, moral, philosophic, communicative, ideological and informational systems or structures.

All these systems have developmental stages, which have different phase transitions.

On a higher level these systems try to correct the mistakes that are made on a lower level, with integrating the accomplishments of the lower levels.

Index:

Knowledge
Noumenon
Science
Level of scientific enquiry
Fact, truth and objectivity
Mental framework
Knowledge hierarchy
Truth
Evidence
The scientific method
Different kinds of evidence
Hierarchy of research evidence
Proof
Logic
Understanding
Methodology
Applied knowledge
Technology
Technological development
Creativity and innovation
Levels of Innovation
Engineering
Productivity
Clear objectives
Ergonomics
Effectiveness

Sociological
Political systems
Universal healthcare
Social behavior
Regressive social behavior
Social exclusion
Regressive Collective social behavior
Collectivist
International conflicts
Collective crisis
War
Moral defense institutions
Point of view regarding to war
Diplomacy
Social Research methodology
Quality of life

Polarising perspectives
Worldview
Different philosophical world-views
Different Scientific world-views
Technological world-views
Different psychological world-views
Communication
Levels of communication
Modern communication technologies
Civilised behaviour
Community engagement
Levels of information        
Data
Educational standards
Informational
Quality of information
Terminology
Manipulation of data
Overgeneralising
Erroneous   extrapolation
Misrepresentation
Deception
Imbalance
Sophistry
Falsification

Morality
Freedom and self-determination
Moral relativism
Objective morality
Five major domains
Different validity claims

Positive attitude
Negative attitude
Tyrannical
Nihilism
Pathologies
Modern tribalism
Pathological  viewpoints
Marxism
Paradigm shift
Fallacies,
Logical fallacies
Linguistic fallacies
Language manipulation

Dogmatism
Fundamentalism
Polarisation
Pathologies

Obscurantism

Meaning
Meaningless
Metaphors
Teleology

Aesthetics
Art

Maturation
Communication
Regression
Progression

Modern communication technologies
Interdisciplinary
Subjectivism
Relativism
Pretentiousness
Pseudo intellectualism
Scepticism and Pseudo-scepticism
Falsification
Scepticism
Pseudo-scepticism

Maliciousness
Psychological biases
Antagonism
Di­verse domains of human thought
Stratification
Pre-Modern
Modernism
Postmodernism
One dimensional spectrum
Paradigmatic shifts
Materialism

Phase transitions and developmental stages 

The nature of knowledge and objectivity:

Knowledge
Knowledge:  facts, information, and skills acquired through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.
An intellectual endeavour aimed at a rational understanding
Knowledge is a familiarity or awareness, of someone or something, such as facts (descriptive knowledge), skills (procedural knowledge), or objects (acquaintance knowledge) contributing to one’s understanding.
By most accounts, knowledge can be acquired in many different ways and from many sources, including but not limited to perception, reason, memory, testimony, scientific inquiry, education, and practice.
The philosophical study of knowledge is called epistemology.

If knowledge is defined in terms of criteria that are truly meaningful, reflecting how knowledge claims are actually advanced, challenged, and justified, then knowledge is open to all.

knowledge. It was questioned, for example, whether one could gain any certain knowledge in metaphysics (the philosophical study of the basic nature, structure, or elements of reality) or in the sciences

Noumenon
The question is: How can one possibly hope to attain an objective (even though approximate and incomplete) knowl­edge of the world? We never have direct access to the world; we have direct access only to our sensations. How do we know that there even exists anything outside of those sensations?
Can one achieve knowledge of “things-in-themselves” (things as they really are, rather than as they appear to human observers).

According to The Encyclopaedia Britannica: ”The things-in-themselves” (noumena), which do not exist in space and time and do not enter into causal relations.
(Kant was committed to platonic realism).
This description of the noumena correspond to the platonic forms, who transcend space and time and do not enter into causal relations, which would imply a temporal relation.
Plato’s theory is called platonic realism

The best way to account for the coherence of our experience is to suppose that the outside world corresponds, at least approximately, to the image of it provided by our senses
The result does indeed correspond to reality
.
Noumenon: a posited object or event as it appears in itself independent of perception by the senses
.
Noumenon, plural noumena, in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, the thing-in-itself (das Ding an sich) as opposed to what Kant called the phenomenon—the thing as it appears to an observer. Though the noumenal holds the contents of the intelligible world, Kant claimed that man’s speculative reason can only know phenomena and can never penetrate to the noumenon. Man, however, is not altogether excluded from the noumenal because practical reason—i.e., the capacity for acting as a moral agent—makes no sense unless a noumenal world is postulated in which freedom, God, and immortality abide.

The relationship of noumenon to phenomenon in Kant’s philosophy has engaged philosophers for nearly two centuries, and some have judged his passages on these topics to be irreconcilable. Kant’s immediate successors in German Idealism in fact rejected the noumenal as having no existence for man’s intelligence. Kant, however, felt that he had precluded this rejection by his refutation of Idealism, and he persisted in defending the absolute reality of the noumenal, arguing that the phenomenal world is an expression of power and that the source from which this power comes can only be the noumenal world beyond.”
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

So the question is whether there is objective knowledge and not just subjective opinions
That is, rationally intelligible logical supporting data about facts and consistency within the truth claims

The noumenon correspond to the platonic forms, which existence is acknowledged by many philosophers, scientists and mathematicians, its inaccessibility can be in doubt.
The platonic realm is accessible by intuition (Gödel),
and the theoretical entities of physics are, precisely, the things-in-themselves (Hermann von Helmholtz) 

Science
The systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.

Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world.

The scientific attitude, understood very broadly, as a respect for the clarity and logical coherence of theories, and for the confrontation of theories with empirical
evidence

Science is an intellectual endeavour aimed at a rational understanding

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Level of scientific enquiry
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol

8 Transdisciplinary
7 Interdisciplinary
6 Multi-disciplinary
5 Disciplinary (specialisation)
4 Universals Scholasticism
3 Praxis
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Fact, truth and objectivity
This concerns knowledge in general, questioning whether anything actually can be known with complete or adequate certainty.

Factual data
A “fact” is a situation in the external world that ex­ists regardless of the knowledge we have (or don’t have) of it, in particular, regardless of any consensus or interpreta­tion.

While  the things-in-themselves are not necessarily unknowable, as science and its applications,  engineering and technology show, factual data isn’t complete, there are facts of which we are  ignorant.
 
Even science deals with provisional truths, that are updated when new relevant data becomes available.
Furthermore, knowledge systems and knowledge progresses in (distinct) developmental phases:
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Mental framework
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
12
11
10 Holoflux
9 Archetypes
8 Ultra-holistic, fractal thinking
7 Holistic / nested hierarchies, complex adaptive,
Chaos theory, panarchic thinking
6 Network thinking
5 Mechanistic thinking
4 Uniformistic thinking
3 Polarizing thinking
2 Magical thinking
1 Instinctive / reflex thinking
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Facts against opinions
To replace instantaneous opinions with clear thinking with a respect for evidence that challenges our preconceptions.

Pragmatic model

From Wikipedia:
In 1877, Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, the belief being that on which one is prepared to act. He framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt, which he held to be fruitless.^[y] He outlined four methods of settling opinion, ordered from least to most successful:

1  Traditional

2  The method of tenacity (policy of sticking to initial belief) – which brings comforts and decisiveness but leads to trying to ignore contrary information and others’ views as if truth were intrinsically private, not public. It goes against the social impulse and easily falters since one may well notice when another’s opinion is as good as one’s own initial opinion. Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory.

3   The method of authority – which overcomes disagreements but sometimes brutally. Its successes can be majestic and long-lived, but it cannot operate thoroughly enough to suppress doubts indefinitely, especially when people learn of other societies’ present and past.

4  The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of “what is agreeable to reason.” Thereby it depends on fashion in paradigms and goes in circles over time. It is more intellectual and respectable but, like the first two methods, sustains accidental and capricious beliefs, destining some minds to doubt it.

5  The scientific method – the method wherein inquiry regards itself as fallible and purposely tests itself and criticizes, corrects, and improves itself.

              These methods can be expanded    (M.J.M):

6  Realise that different fields of enquiry, have different
         validity claims

7  Integrate the results of the different fields of enquiry   

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Knowledge hierarchy
Marinus Jan Marijs

8 Holistic
7 Integral
6 Pluralistic
5 The scientific method
4 Logical reasoning
3 Trial and error
2 Authority
1 Tradition
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Truth: that which is true or in accordance with fact or reality.

Truth, in metaphysics and the philosophy of language, the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to state what is the case.

The factors that determine the truthfulness of a theory or explanation are:
congruence, consistency, coherence, and usefulness.
A true theory is congruent with our experience – meaning, it fits the facts. Alongside this criterion, a true theory is coherent with everything else we consider true.

The quality of being in accordance with experience, facts, or reality; conformity with fact.

There are often said to be five main ‘theories of truth’: correspondence, coherence, pragmatic, redundancy, and semantic theories. The coherence theory of truth equates the truth of a judgment with its coherence with other beliefs. Different versions of the theory give different accounts of coherence, but in all its forms the point is to exhibit truth as an internal relation between beliefs. The pragmatic theory of truth is akin to a coherence theory of this Kantian kind. No coherence theorist need deny the uncontentious claim that for a judgment to be true is for it to stand in a certain relationship, which can be called correspondence, with some state of affairs in the world. The conflict with the redundancy theory may be more apparent than real. For the redundancy theory is not a theory of what truth consists in, but a theory about the meaning of the words ‘is true’.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118972090.ch21    

Wikipedia             https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth

Evidence
What counts as evidence?
The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid

Evidence
The traditional scientific method involves developing a hypothesis  is based on observations and then testing and refining it   through experiment. A good hypothesis should be falsifiable   through such tests and, if it has not been falsified, should lead to  predictions which can themselves be tested. Ideally, those tests  should be repeatable. It may never be possible to prove a hypothesis absolutely, but if it makes testable predictions that are  then  upheld by experiment or observation, it  becomes the accepted
theory. (Encyclopedia Britannica),

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries). It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.

Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, the underlying process is frequently the same from one field to another. The process in the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), deriving predictions from the hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.

The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the expectations deduced from a hypothesis. Experiments can take place anywhere from a garage to CERN’s Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always in the same order.   (Wikipedia)

Different kinds of evidence
Physics: Repeatable empirical data
History: Cross-referencing Documentary evidence, textual data. 
Medical: Case studies, Meta-analyses
Economic: Statistical data
Criminological: Forensic, witness statements

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analysing data.

History, literature, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, the arts and science 

·  Historical research

• Archival research
• Documentary research
• Historiography

  Historical research relies on a wide variety of sources, both primary & secondary including unpublished material. Found in public records & legal documents, minutes of meetings, corporate records, recordings, letters, diaries, journals,

  Literature Research Methodology
  Literature research methodology is to analyze and to identify the essential attributes.  access to information to read through, analyze and sort literatures in order to identify the essential attribute of materials.

  Literary research, theoretical research, textual research, historical research, interpretative research, and interdisciplinary research all du have different methodologies:

  Social Research methodology
  Observation / Participant Observation.

• Surveys.
• Interviews.
• Focus Groups.
• Experiments.
• Secondary Data Analysis / Archival Study.

Mixed Methods (combination of some of the above)

Mathematical method
Data analysis which involves free and heuristic construction of plausible arguments, working backward from the goal, and devising a plan for constructing the proof; synthesis is the strict Euclidean exposition of step-by-step details^[148] of the proof; review involves reconsidering and re-examining the result and the path taken to it.

The natural sciences (astronomy, biology, chemistry, geoscience, and physics) draw their study of methods through the scientific method. This is a quantitative approach influenced through the philosophy of empiricism that posits knowledge can only be obtained through direct, verifiable observations. The scientific method offers a defined set of best practice to observe the world through established methods such as characterizations, hypotheses, predictions, and experimentation. through relevant methods or techniques, documented in a clear and replicable process

·  Innovative methods

• Automated text analysis
• Big data
• Collaborative research
• Computational modelling
• Data mining
• Data visualization
• Internet research
• Mobile methodologies
• Spatial analysis
• Video research

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Hierarchy of research evidence
Definition: The hierarchy indicates the relative weight that can be attributed to a particular study design. Generally, the higher up a methodology is ranked, the more robust it is assumed to be. At one
end lies the meta-analysis, synthesizing the results of a number of similar trails to produce a result of higher statistical  power. At the other end of the spectrum  lie observational studies, thought to
provide the weakest level of evidence

7   Systematic reviews and meta-analyses
6   Randomised controlled trails (RCT)
     with definitive results
5   Randomised controlled trails
     with no definitive results
4   Cohort studies
3   Case control studies
2   Cross sectional surveys
1   Case reports
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Proof
We know what proof   amounts to in formal systems such as logic and mathematics. But empirical claims   do not have that degree of certitude, and yet we can still have good reasons for  have confidence in many things that nevertheless remain vulnerable to possible revision or  subsequent rejection.  

Logic
What is the concept of logic?

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. Logic pertains to all subjects, since people can reason about anything they can think about. Politics, the arts, literature, business, the sciences, and everyday problems are all subjects open to reasoning.

Logic is a science that deals with the principles and criteria of validity of inference and demonstration : the science of the formal principles of reasoning

A method of human thought that involves thinking in a linear, step-by-step manner about how a problem can be solved. Logic is the basis of many principles including the scientific method

(philosophy, logic) The study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration.

The branch of philosophy dealing with correct reasoning, describing relationships among propositions in terms of implication, contradiction, contrariety, conversion, etc.

Logic and truth claims
Clair thinking with a respect for evidence that challenges our preconceptions
Compare competing viewpoints
To take in consideration the implications of one’s way of thinking
Consistency
Multivariate analysis
Use the rules of logical argumentation.
 
Understanding
While knowledge alone has little value where as knowing something in context is understanding, which has much higher relative value

 Understanding requires that the internal connections are “seen” or “grasped” that are found at a deeper level.

Reason or intelligence, with ability to grasp the full meaning of knowledge, ability to infer.

To see or know the meaning of something

While knowledge deals with the how question, understanding deals with the why question.

Methodology
The analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline
Even though there does not exist a methodology based on unquestionable a priori reason­ing, these rules (and many others) are not arbitrary. They are ra­tional and are based on a detailed analysis of prior experience.

The type of approach in each domain of research should depend upon the specific phenomena under investigation.

Research methodology:
Based on General Category,

1. Quantitative Research
2. Qualitative Research
3. Descriptive Research
4. Analytical Research
5. Applied Research
6. Fundamental Research
7. Exploratory Research
8. Conclusive Research
9. Surveys
10. Case Studies. So, understanding the research methods is important to verify and validate the research in different fields.

Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability.

List of Types in Research Methodology

Research methods are classified based on different criteria. They are a general category, nature of the study, the purpose of the study, and research design. Also, there are interviews and case studies based on research methodology. In some researches, more than two methods are combined while in some, very few methods are taken into account for the study.

Based on General Category,

1. Quantitative Research

As the name suggests, quantitative refers to the numbers where data is collected based on numbers, and a summary is taken from these numbers. Graphs help to quantify the results in quantitative research.

2. Qualitative Research

Qualitative refers to the non- numerical elements in the research. When the information or data cannot be grasped in terms of numbers, qualitative research comes for the rescue. Though not reliable as much as quantitative, qualitative research helps to form a better summary in terms of theories in the data.

Based on the nature of the research,

3. Descriptive Research

Facts are considered in descriptive methods and surveys and case studies are done to clarify the facts. These help to determine and explain with examples, the facts, and they are not rejected.   Many variables can be used in descriptive research to explain the facts.

4. Analytical Research

Analytical research uses the facts that have been confirmed already to form the basis for the research and critical evaluation of the material is carried out in this method. Analytical methods make use of quantitative methods as well.

5. Applied Research

Applied research is action research where only one domain is considered and mostly the facts are generalized. Variables are considered constant and forecasting is done so that the methods can be found out easily in applied research. The technical language is used in the research and the summary is based on technical facts.

6. Fundamental Research

Fundamental research is the basic or pure research done to find out an element or a theory that has never been in the world yet. Several domains are connected and the aim is to find out how traditional things can be changed or something new can be developed. The summary is purely in common language and logical findings are applied in the research.

Based on research design,

7. Exploratory Research

Exploratory studies are based on the theories and their explanation and it does not provide any conclusion for the research topic. The structure is not proper and the methods offer a flexible and investigative approach for the study. The hypothesis is not tested and the result will not be of much help to the outside world. The findings will be topic related that helps in improving the research more.

8. Conclusive Research

Conclusive Research aims at providing an answer to the research topic and has a proper design in the methodology. A well-designed structure helps in formulating and solving the hypotheses and give the results. The results will be generic and help the outside world. Researchers will have an inner pleasure to solve the problems and to help society in general.

9. Surveys

Not least considered, but Surveys play a main role in the research methodology. It helps to collect a vast amount of real-time data and helps in the research process. It is done at a low cost and can be done faster than any other method. Surveys can be done in both quantitative and qualitative methods. Always, quantitative surveys must be considered above qualitative surveys as they provide numerical outputs and the data is real. Surveys are mainly used in the business to know the demand for a product in the market and to forecast the production based on the results from the survey.

10. Case Studies

Case studies are another method of research methodology where different cases are considered and the proper one for the research is selected. Case studies help to form an idea of the research and helps in the foundation of the research. Various facts and theories can be considered from the case studies that help to form proper reviews about the research topic. Researchers can either make the topic general or specific according to the literature reviews from the studies. A proper understanding of the research can be made from the case study.

Also, we have focus groups and research interviews to understand the research methods in a well-defined manner. Structured and unstructured methods can be followed by various methods.

Advantages of using different Research Methodology

Below are the advantages mentioned :

• In a research, critical evaluation of the topic is important to analyze and verify the research. This helps the researcher to explore the research more effectively. Various methods in the research helps to explore the research from different perspectives and to analyze in a fact-driven manner.
• Quantitative methods and surveys help to gain numerical outputs that help in all the research. Results can be formed easily without explaining much in the thesis with the help of numbers.

Reliable researches are important to make use of them and the methods help to make it valid and useful to the topic and in a generalized manner. Several methods help researchers formulate the research area and to improve their knowledge.

https://www.educba.com/types-of-research-methodology/

Applied knowledge
Applied knowledge is learning that is used in various situations and contexts. To use various procedures and analytical tools to formulate and generalize concepts to solve diverse problems and situations.

applied knowledge is practical knowledge that is produced by putting academic knowledge into practice. It is gained through experience, by trying things out until they work in real-world situations.

Technology The application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry.

Technology is the sum of any techniques, skills, methods, and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation
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Technological development
Marinus Jan Marijs
12
11
10
9
8   Quantum computer (entanglement)
7   Quantum mechanics, cybernetics, nanotechnology
6   Electronics, transistor, radio, television, computer
     (non-moving parts)
5   Steam engines, Mechanics, Electricity, (moving
     parts)
4   Sail boat, watermill
3   Metallurgy , wheel
2   Stone tools
1   Wooden tools
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It is also true that technology has  mixed results— sometimes disastrous ones— the worst  aspects of science (militarism, mechanised warfare, industrialised massmurder)
Its best  aspects are the attempt at rationally understanding the world, and  the scientific method, understood broadly as a respect for em­pirical evidence and for logic

Creativity and innovation
Creativity is the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality.
Creativity is characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden patterns, to make connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions.

To limit bureaucratic procedures 

Innovation is the implementation of a new or significantly improved product, service or process that creates value for society.
The act or process of introducing new ideas, devices, or methods

Definition: The process of translating an idea or invention into a good or service that creates value, in terms of the degree  of novelty.
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Levels of Innovation Henderson / Clark
{Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol}

9   {Illuminative innovation}
8   {Transformative innovation}
7   Radical innovation
6   Architectural innovation
5   Modular innovation
4   Incremental innovation
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Engineering
The systematic creation of new technologies
Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings.

The application of science and mathematics by which the properties of matter and the sources of energy in nature are made useful to people

The design and manufacture of complex products

Productivity
The effectiveness of productive effort, especially in industry, as measured in terms of the rate of output per unit of input.

Productivity is how efficiently one can complete tasks, within a certain period of time.
Competitiveness

Clear objectives
Having a view about the desired outcome.
Specific means that the objective is concrete, detailed, focused and well defined.

Ergonomics
is a science that deals with designing and arranging things so that people can use them easily and safely.

Effectiveness
Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result or the ability to produce desired output. When something is deemed effective, it means it has an intended or expected outcome

Prioritize necessary changes
· Higher productivit 
·  Better product quality

• Improved employee engagement
• Better safety culture
  the relationship between people and their working environment,
  https://ergo-plus.com/ergonomics-definition-domains-applications/
  
  Sociological
  Cultural and social institutions
  Concerning the development, structure, and functioning of human society.
  Sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of societies such as institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups. Sociology also studies social status or stratification, social movements, and social change, as well as societal disorder in the form of crime, deviance, and revolution.
  
  Social change is way human interactions and relationships transform cultural and social institutions over time, having a profound impact of society.

Sociologists define social change as changes in human interactions and relationships that transform cultural and social institutions. These changes occur over time and often have profound and long-term consequences for society. Well known examples of such change have resulted from social movements in civil rights, women’s rights, and LBGTQ rights, to name just a few. Relationships have changed, institutions have changed, and cultural norms have changed as a result of these social change movements
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Political systems
Marinus Jan Marijs
7
6   Social democracy
     Multi-party system
     (Balance between capitalism and socialism)
5   Capitalism
     Two party system
4   Communism / Oligarchy/Plutocracy
     One party system
3   Feudal system / Dictatorship
2
1
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Characteristics & values
Clare Graves / Don Beck
12
11
10
9   Collective consciousness, self as part of larger spiritual
     whole, resonance conscious & interactive universe,
     reality of spiritual realm
8   Group solutions, universal causality entities viewed as
     fields, intuition, fundamental meaning / purpose
7   Functionality, flexibility, spontaneity, meld conflicting
     truths, personal freedom w/consideration for others,
     contextual interactions
6   Integrative, open systems, networking, inclusion,
     affiliation, community, sharing, consensus, harmony,
     interdependence, togetherness, synergy, liberate
     humanity from greed /dogma, group think
5   Emergence from authority, liberation of ideas ,
     autonomy, interdependence, progress, materialism.
     science and technology to enhance living. Competition ,
     immediate results, entrepreneurial , socio-economic
     status, pragmatism
4   Order (rules) structure, stability, practical. Principles,
     righteousness good/evil reward/punishment, control
     impulses, guilt, dogma. Dominator hierarchy
3   Respect, reputation, gratify impulses, no guilt,
     Life is a jungle, vengeance
2   Allegiance to elders / community / village
     Customs, clans, rituals
1   Subconscious nature. Body, indistinguishable from
     world
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Universal healthcare
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Health care systems
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
12
11
10
9
8
7 Integrated health care
6 Special health care
5 Universal health care
4 Church
3 Family
2
1
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Health
Matthéüs van de Pol
12
11
10
9
8
7   Cybernetic-/ Nano-/ gene-technology enhancements for
     overall health
6   Primary health care: Preventing illness or disability (f.e.
     child immunisation programs, malaria prevention)/
5   Secondary health care: Patient is ill and is treated,
     usually by nurses and doctors (f.e. treatment of diabetes,
     high blood pressure, bronchitis and minor fractures)
4   Tertiary health care: When things have gone wrong (f.e.
     long term care and rehabilitation programs, artificial
     limbs, adaptations to the home)
3   Securing basic human functioning (f.e. food safety
     surveillance, safe drinking water)
2   Magical-emotional and herbal interventions with
     psychosomatic effects (f.e. medicine men and women)
1   Individual’s  autoimmune system
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Sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of societies such as institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups. Sociology also studies social status or stratification, social movements, and social change, as well as societal disorder in the form of crime, deviance, and revolution.

the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a “government” or a “state.” This is the definition adopted by many studies of the legal or constitutional arrangements of advanced political orders. More broadly defined, however, the term comprehends actual as well as prescribed forms of political behaviour, not only the legal organization of the state but also the reality of how the state functions. Still more broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of “processes of interaction” or as a subsystem of the social system interacting with other nonpolitical subsystems, such as the economic system. This points to the importance of informal sociopolitical processes and emphasizes the study of political development.

Political systems
Political systems are the formal and informal political processes by which decisions are made concerning the use, production and distribution of resources in any given society.
concerning the development, structure, and functioning of human society.
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Cultural and social institutions
Political systems
Don Beck

8   Holonic democracy
7   Stratified democracy
6   Multi-party social democracy
5   Two party liberal democracy
4   Authoritarian democracy
3   Feudal empires
2   Tribal orders
1   Survival clans
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Different political systems

In political science, a political system defines the process for making official government decisions. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government influence on its people and economy should be.

Social behavior
Respect for difference of opinion
To be able to disagree about important things and retain
mutual respect.
Tolerance
Sociologically identifying the mistakes of the past and try to correct them.
Being humane
Respectful of human freedom

Regressive social behaviour
Anti-social behaviours are actions that harm or lack consideration for the well-being of others.^[1] It has also been defined as any type of conduct that violates the basic rights of another person^[2] and any behaviour that is considered to be disruptive to others in society
Mutual disrespect
Dismissive
Divisive
Polarising perspectives
Negative polarisation
Change by violent methods
Coercion
Competitive  enemies
Re-segregation
Engage in ad hominem argument   and name-calling
Resentment
Discontentment,
Anger,
Antagonism 
Jalousie
Being hateful
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Social exclusion
Marinus Jan Marijs
Definition: Processes in which individuals and entire communities of
people are systematically blocked from rights, opportunities and resources.

6   Can’t afford a computer, internet or cultural
     events Can’t afford a university education
5   Can’t afford higher education, books, cinema or
     theatre No dental care, no bank account on own
     name
4   No basic schooling, insufficient health care
     No participation in elections
3   Unemployment. No: health care, running water,
     heating
     No sewerage system. Rare contact with friends
2   Rare or seldom contact with family, lack of
     supporting network that could help in emergency
     situations Housing deprivation
1   Below poverty rate, unable to meet basic needs
===============================================================
 
Regressive Collective social behavior

Collectivist: relating to the practice or principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it.
Power striving
Nationalism
Simplistic binary ideologies      
Them against us
Conformistic groupthink

International conflicts
“International conflict” referred to conflicts between different nation-states and conflicts between people and organizations in different nation-states. Increasingly, however, it also applies to inter-group conflicts within one country when one group is fighting for independence or increased social, political, or economic power

What are the different types of international conflict?
·  Civil War.
·  Criminal Violence.
·  Interstate.
·  Political Instability.

• Sectarian.
• Territorial Dispute.
• Transnational Terrorism.

International conflict resolution is concerned with processes of removing tensions between states or maintaining them at levels consistent with continued peaceful pursuit by states of their goals (individual or collective). A full description of the processes of conflict resolution within a community would entail a full description of the numerous and complex kinds and degrees of the divisive and common concerns among its members. This statement acknowledges, on the one hand, that conflict and even war are by no means an abnormal part of international life

International / Geopolitical conflicts
Geopolitics is a study of interest which focuses on factors such as; geography, economics, and demography of policy and foreign policy of a state, country or region. Therefore geopolitical conflicts focus on disagreements and rivalries pertaining to such factors.

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Collective crisis
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
7 Globalisation conflicts
6 Cultural conflicts / clashes
5 Trade conflicts / ‘wars’
4 Ideological conflicts / wars
3 Territorial conflicts / wars
2 Kinship conflicts / wars
1 Scarcity of food and water

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War a state of armed conflict between different countries or different groups within a country.
Implementation with violent means
War
Definition: Point of view regarding to
war, an international armed and
organised conflict which is
characterised by extreme aggression,
economic disintegration, irrationality,
social disruption and the killing of a
great number of human
===============================================================

Moral defense institutions
Matthéüs van de Pol
12
11
10
9
8
7   (International) participatory civic movements, f.e.
    Transition Towns, Occupy
6   Civil society (f.e. Non-Governmental
    Organisations)
5   Judiciary
4   Law enforcement
3   Armed forces
2   Intelligence services (non-accountable, secretive,
    privacy pervasive)
1   Commando’s
===============================================================

===============================================================

Point of view regarding to war
Marinus Jan Marijs
12
11
10
9
8   Civil disobedience
     Non-violent resistance (Ghandi)
7   Avoiding armed conflicts by removing the causes
     of the conflicts
6   Trying to avoid victims of war / hostilities on one’s
     own side as well as on the opposite side.
     Conflict resolution by diplomacy, sanctions
5   Willingness to kill a large number of people in a
     war, who are considered to be the enemy but trying
     to avoid casualties on one’s own side
4   Willingness to kill a large number of people in a
     war, who are considered to be the enemy as well as
     to sacrifice a large number of people on one’s own
     side
3   Willingness to kill a large number of people
      including the own population, even in peace time
       (Hitler, Stalin)
2     Unorganized blind rage (Hutu’s and Tutsi’s)
1     Cannibalism
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Diplomacy
The profession, activity, or skill of managing international relations, typically by a country’s representatives abroad.

Diplomacy, the established method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence. Modern diplomatic practices are a product of the post-Renaissance European state system. Historically, diplomacy meant the conduct of official (usually bilateral) relations between sovereign states. By the 20th century, however, the diplomatic practices pioneered in Europe had been adopted throughout the world, and diplomacy had expanded to cover summit meetings and other international conferences, parliamentary diplomacy, the international activities of supranational and subnational entities, unofficial diplomacy by nongovernmental elements, and the work of international civil servants.

The term diplomacy is derived via French from the ancient Greek diplōma, composed of diplo, meaning “folded in two,” and the suffix -ma, meaning “an object.” The folded document conferred a privilege—often a permit to travel—on the bearer, and the term came to denote documents through which princes granted such favours. Later it applied to all solemn documents issued by chancelleries, especially those containing agreements between sovereigns. Diplomacy later became identified with international relations, and the direct tie to documents lapsed (except in diplomatics, which is the science of authenticating old official documents). In the 18th century the French term diplomate (“diplomat” or “diplomatist”) came to refer to a person authorized to negotiate on behalf of a state.

This article discusses the nature of diplomacy, its history, and the ways in which modern diplomacy is conducted, including the selection and training of diplomats and the organization of diplomatic bodies. For a discussion of the legal rules governing diplomatic negotiation and the preparation of treaties and other agreements, see international law. One venue for diplomacy, the United Nations (UN), is considered in detail under that title.

Nature and purpose

Diplomacy is often confused with foreign policy, but the terms are not synonymous. Diplomacy is the chief, but not the only, instrument of foreign policy, which is set by political leaders, though diplomats (in addition to military and intelligence officers) may advise them. Foreign policy establishes goals, prescribes strategies, and sets the broad tactics to be used in their accomplishment. It may employ secret agents, subversion, war, or other forms of violence as well as diplomacy to achieve its objectives. Diplomacy is the principal substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft; it is how comprehensive national power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. It may be coercive (i.e., backed by the threat to apply punitive measures or to use force) but is overtly nonviolent. Its primary tools are international dialogue and negotiation, primarily conducted by accredited envoys (a term derived from the French envoyé, meaning “one who is sent”) and other political leaders. Unlike foreign policy, which generally is enunciated publicly, most diplomacy is conducted in confidence, though both the fact that it is in progress and its results are almost always made public in contemporary international relations.

The purpose of foreign policy is to further a state’s interests, which are derived from geography, history, economics, and the distribution of international power. Safeguarding national independence, security, and integrity—territorial, political, economic, and moral—is viewed as a country’s primary obligation, followed by preserving a wide freedom of action for the state. The political leaders, traditionally of sovereign states, who devise foreign policy pursue what they perceive to be the national interest, adjusting national policies to changes in external conditions and technology. Primary responsibility for supervising the execution of policy may lie with the head of state or government, a cabinet or a nominally nongovernmental collective leadership, the staff of the country’s leader, or a minister who presides over the foreign ministry, directs policy execution, supervises the ministry’s officials, and instructs the country’s diplomats abroad.

The purpose of diplomacy is to strengthen the state, nation, or organization it serves in relation to others by advancing the interests in its charge. To this end, diplomatic activity endeavours to maximize a group’s advantages without the risk and expense of using force and preferably without causing resentment. It habitually, but not invariably, strives to preserve peace; diplomacy is strongly inclined toward negotiation to achieve agreements and resolve issues between states. Even in times of peace, diplomacy may involve coercive threats of economic or other punitive measures or demonstrations of the capability to impose unilateral solutions to disputes by the application of military power. However, diplomacy normally seeks to develop goodwill toward the state it represents, nurturing relations with foreign states and peoples that will ensure their cooperation or—failing that—their neutrality.

When diplomacy fails, war may ensue; however, diplomacy is useful even during war. It conducts the passages from protest to menace, dialogue to negotiation, ultimatum to reprisal, and war to peace and reconciliation with other states. Diplomacy builds and tends the coalitions that deter or make war. It disrupts the alliances of enemies and sustains the passivity of potentially hostile powers. It contrives war’s termination, and it forms, strengthens, and sustains the peace that follows conflict. Over the long term, diplomacy strives to build an international order conducive to the nonviolent resolution of disputes and expanded cooperation between states.

Diplomats are the primary—but far from the only—practitioners of diplomacy. They are specialists in carrying messages and negotiating adjustments in relations and the resolution of quarrels between states and peoples. Their weapons are words, backed by the power of the state or organization they represent. Diplomats help leaders to understand the attitudes and actions of foreigners and to develop strategies and tactics that will shape the behaviour of foreigners, especially foreign governments. The wise use of diplomats is a key to successful foreign policy.

Stabilising international conflicts by developing international trade relationships that allows countries to expand their markets and access goods and services that otherwise may not have been available domestically.

Quality of life
Standard indicators of the quality of life:

Collective planning
Communication systems
Functioning money system
Economic distribution
Energy resources in society.
Housing + basic facilities
Material standards of living
Techno-economic base
Technological development
Technological level infrastructure
Balance Work-Life
Community engagement
Control over major infection disease
Trust in organisations, institutions and governments
Health care
A fair Income distribution
Job creation / availability
Job security
Accuracy, efficiency, relevancy and inclusiveness of information
Environmental sustainability
Gender equality
Availability of food, in relation to the body’s dietary needs
Physical safety
Political stability
Public services
Quality of community life
Social inclusion.
Social equality
Social safety net
Civil and Political rights
Freedom and self-determination
Hazard control
Human rights
Judiciary systems
Prevention of violence
Medical treatments
Educational systems
Life expectancy at birth
Means of transportation
level of social organisation
Visual representational systems
Religious structures
Social organisation
Knowledge acquisition and structuring
Aesthetic / Artistic environment
Systems of Disaster relief
Level of engagement
physical and mental health,  
Recreation and leisure time,
Social belonging,
religious beliefs,
security and freedom.
Standard of living  (GDP)
Social systems
Quality of education
Quality of healthcare
Infrastructure
Cost of living
Personal physical security
Quality of community life
Governance
Gender equality
Economic Quality
Business Environment
Free market system
Personal Freedom
Freedom of speech and religion,
National tolerance for minorities (immigrants, ethnic and racial)
Air Pollution. The quality of air
Levels of Congestion and Transport
Environmental Standards
Access to clean drinking water
Climate. Hospitability
Maternal mortality ratio
Infant mortality rate
Health Expenditure
Sanitation facility access
Prevention of major infectious diseases
Inflation rate (consumer prices)
Unemployment rate
Literacy rate
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)

Polarising perspectives
Radical relativism
Rigidity
Divisive
Exclusionary
Negative polarisation
Hostility
Nihilistic
Discontentment, mental anguish, resentment,
Anger, emotion and antagonism
Intimidation

Worldview
is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual’s or society’s knowledge and point of view.^[1][2][3][4] A worldview can include natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics.^[5
Evidence based worldview vs. ideological preconceptions

Different world-views
Magical
Mythical
Logical
Multi-Perspective
Integral
Post-Integral
===============================================================

Different philosophical world-views
Marinus Jan Marijs

12   Deificatism
11   Unificatism
10   Synergism
9   Transendentism
8   Immanentism
7   Reconstructivism
6   Deconstructivism
5   Positivism
4   Scholasticism
3   Ritualism

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Different Scientific world-views
7  Quantum-mechanical  
6  Einsteinian
5  Newtonian
4  Aristotelian 
==============================================================

===============================================================
Technological world-views
7  Informational
6  Electronical
5  Electrical
4  Mechanical
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Different psychological world-views
7  Transpersonal
6  Humanistic,
5  Freudian,
4  Behaviourism,
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Communication
The imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium.
Necessary is to be:
Well-articulated
Well-informed
The free exchange of ideas
To support a right cause
To have a comprehensive worldview
Experientially based
Corroborated by observations
Not to confuses assertions of facts with facts
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Levels of communication
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
12
11
10
9
8
7  Co-creative communication (e.g. Wikipedia) /
    integrated media communication
6  Multimedia communication (interactive)
    Electronic communication
5  Printed text
4  Written text
3  deography , Image communication
2  Oral communication
1  Gestures
===============================================================

==============================================================

Communication
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
Definition: Level specific transferring of information.

8 Intuitive resonance
7 Synthetic vision
6 Perspective taking
5 Logical persuasion
4 Propaganda
3 Indoctrination
2 Emotional hype
1 Behavioural conditioning
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Modern communication technologies
Modern communications technology or ICT( Internet Communications Technology) can be defined as ‘anything which allows us to get information, to communicate with each other, or to have an effect on the environment using electronic or digital equipment’

Civilised behaviour
Respectful debate
Open-mindedness
Toleration
Find common ground
Adaptability
Harmonious negotiated resolutions
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Community engagement        Marinus Jan Marijs
12
11
10
9
8 Maintain relationships
7 Monitor progress
6 Create an implementation plan
5 Prioritize activities
4 Develop engagement strategies of those
individuals you do not already know
3 Develop engagement strategies for those
individuals you already know
2 Plan out who to engage
1 Determine the goals of the plan
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Data
Individual facts, statistics, or items of information, often numeric. In a more technical sense, data are a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more persons or objects. Collected together for reference or analysis.
… information, especially facts or numbers, collected to be examined and considered and used to help decision-making, ..

Educational standards

The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university.
the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, morals, beliefs, habits, and personal development.

Education  vs. indoctrination
How to think  vs. what to think
The ability to think for oneself and make one’s own judgment
Reflective vs. binary / polarised
Making informed rational choices

Informational
Relating to or characterized by facts about something; providing information
knowledge communicated or received concerning a particular fact or circumstance.

Quality of information
Information quality is the value of information for a given use.
The following are common types of information quality.

Accurate / reliable 
Information that is correct.

Precision
The level of detail information provides. For example, there is a difference between knowing something is “good” as opposed to knowing numerical data.

 

Credibility
Information that comes from a reliable source.

Timelines
Information will only be actionable for a limit period of time and quickly loses its value.
Up to date.

 

Completeness
The scope, depth and coverage of information.

Relevance
The potential of information to improve the quality of decisions or solve problems.

Uniqueness
In some cases a secret or unique analysis is worth more than something everyone knows.

Comprehensible
Information is data that is meant to be used by people. As such , quality information is designed for human comprehension. If  most observers misinterpret an information item, it can be considered low quality even if it is technically correct. For example, a statistic that is based on real data but presented in a misleading way.
https://simplicable.com/new/information-quality

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Different levels of information relating to the accuracy,
efficiency, relevancy and inclusiveness of communication:

Levels of information Marinus Jan Marijs
12
11
10
9
8   Transforming
7   Integrating
6   Multi perspective
5   Logical structured factual information
4   Infotainment
3   Sensationalism, trivia
2   Gossip
1   Slander
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Terminology:
Terminology is a general word for the group of specialized words or meanings relating to a particular field, and also the study of such terms and their use This is also known as terminology science. Terms are words and compound words or multi-word expressions that in specific contexts are given specific meanings—these may deviate from the meanings the same words have in other contexts and in everyday language. Terminology is a discipline that studies, among other things, the development of such terms and their interrelationships within a specialized domain. Terminology differs from lexicography, as it involves the study of concepts, conceptual systems and their labels (terms), whereas lexicography studies words and their meanings.

Terminology is a discipline that systematically studies the “labelling or designating of concepts” particular to one or more subject fields or domains of human activity. It does this through the research and analysis of terms in context for the purpose of documenting and promoting consistent usage.

a general word for the group of specialized words or meanings relating to a particular field, and also the study of such terms and their use.

Manipulation of data
Data manipulation is the process in which data is forged, presented in an deceptive way or changed with disregard to the truth. Data manipulation may result in distorted perception of a subject which may lead to falls conclusions.
In the modern world we encounter data manipulation every day. Arguably the most common kind of data manipulation is misuse of statistics – many click-bait article titles on the internet are based on misuse of statistic as are some political and economic arguments.
Misuse of statistics does include data forgery – the process in which data is created without any connection to the object of the data but the most important kinds of misuse of statistics are these that involve real data that is presented in a manner that may be misleading and even dangerous.

There are different  kinds of data manipulations:

Omitting important facts, factors

 sometimes deliberately or unintentionally manipulate data to fit a hypothesis.
When conducting an experiment, one has to conduct lists of relevant factors

fact fitting

Fact fitting is the process which in a sense is the opposite of fact omitting – facts are shaped to fit a certain theory.

Overgeneralising: complex composed situations or problems need to be decomposed in a sophisticated way into their constituted elements, until they’re differentiated enough, so that some partial solutions for some of the problems can arise.

Overgeneralization is the act of drawing conclusions that are too broad because they exceed what could be logically concluded from the available information. 
Ignoring different elements of a complex composed system

Erroneous   extrapolation.
Extrapolation the action of estimating or concluding something by assuming that existing trends will continue or a current method will remain applicable.

The action of estimating or concluding something by assuming that existing trends will continue or a current method will remain applicable.

Misrepresentation: the action or offence of giving a false or misleading account of the nature of something.

3 Types of Misrepresentation

Fraudulent misrepresentation 

Fraudulent misrepresentation is very serious. Fraudulent misrepresentation occurs when a party to a contract knowingly makes an untrue statement of fact which induces the other party to enter that contract. Fraudulent misrepresentation also occurs when the party either does not believe the truth of his or her statement of fact or is reckless as regards its truth. A claimant who has been the victim of alleged fraudulent misrepresentation can claim both rescission, which will set the contract aside, and damages.

Negligent misrepresentation

A party that is trying to induce another party to a contract has a duty to ensure that reasonable care is taken as regards the accuracy of any representations of fact that may lead to the latter party to enter the contract. If such reasonable care to ensure the truth of a statement is not taken, then the wronged party may be the victim of negligent misrepresentation. Negligent misrepresentation can also occur in some cases when a party makes a careless statement of fact or does not have sufficient reason for believing in that statement’s truth. As with fraudulent misrepresentation, claimants can pursue both damages and a rescission of the contract. 

Innocent misrepresentation 

In innocent misrepresentation, a misrepresentation that has induced a party into a contract has occurred, but the person making the misrepresentation had reasonable grounds for believing it was true at the time the representation was made. A claimant who has been the victim of innocent misrepresentation can still pursue damages, but he or she cannot pursue rescission. Again, to pursue damages it must be shown that the claimant suffered a loss because of the misrepresentation.

Divisive vs. Unifying
Tending to cause disagreement or hostility between people.
forming or expressing division or distribution. creating dissension or discord.

VVVVVV

Deception: lying, misleading, or otherwise hiding or distorting the truth.
Deception is an act or statement that misleads, hides the truth, or promotes a belief, concept, or idea that is not true.
communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the whole truth.

Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal or nonverbal messages so that the message receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false

Some forms of deception include:

• Lies: making up information or giving information that is the opposite or very different from the truth.^[4]
• Equivocations: making an indirect, ambiguous, or contradictory statement.
• Concealments: omitting information that is important or relevant to the given context, or engaging in behavior that helps hide relevant information.
• Exaggerations: overstatement or stretching the truth to a degree.
• Understatements: minimization or downplaying aspects of the truth.^[3]
• Untruths: misinterpreting the truth.

Buller and Burgoon (1996) have proposed three taxonomies to distinguish motivations for deception based on their Interpersonal Deception Theory:

• Instrumental: to avoid punishment or to protect resources
• Relational: to maintain relationships or bonds

• Identity: to preserve “face” or the self-image^[5]

  Imbalance
  a situation in which two or more things are not equal in size, power, importance, etc. or in which one group has more advantages than the other, such as:

  Highly innovative technological development, with a totalitarian political system
  Technical competence with immoral motives
  High level of GDP with a low level health care system

Sophistry
The use of clever but false arguments, especially with the intention of deceiving.

Sophistry is reasoning that seems plausible on a superficial level but is actually unsound, or reasoning that is used to deceive.
A discourse that is based solely on vague analogies
To be uninformed and use fallacious arguments
virtually unable to communicate with one another
Attempting to ridicule

Falsification
the action of falsifying information or a theory
The deliberate act of misrepresentation so as to deceive.
misrepresentation, distortion, tampering with, data

Morality
Principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behaviour.
Regarding to the rights of individuals
To Maintain what is good, and to change what is wrong
Toleration, liberty of individuals
Tolerance of people with different views.
Justice
To support a right cause
Eradicating poverty
To have serious constraints on government power

Freedom and self-determination

6  Protection against arbitrary expulsion, sanctions
    against inciting hatred. The rights of ethnic,
    religious and linguistic minority to enjoy their own
    culture, to profess their own religion and to use
    their own language
5 Freedom of association, expression, religion,
    movement,
    The right to choose residence and leave a country
4  Right to a nationality
3  Right to protection against unlawful attacks to
    honour and reputation
2  Right to private adult consensual sexual activity
    and the right to marriage

Moral relativism
“All value and normative theory …logical analysis yields the negative result that the alleged statements in this domain are entirely meaningless”(Rudolf Carnap, 1932)

“It is now pretty generally accepted by professional philosophers that ultimate ethical principles must be arbitrary,”(Brian Medlin, 1957)

Here in these two quotes ,the validity claims of the cognitive group are used on the moral group, which is a category mistake, because the cognitive group and the moral group, have different validity claims.

There are many different degrees of these category mistakes . At one end, one finds extrapolations of scientific concepts, beyond their domain of validity, that are erroneous but for subtle reasons. At the other end, one finds numerous texts that are full of scientific words but entirely devoid of meaning.

Objective morality
Greek platonic philosophy as well as Christian theology postulated the existence of objective morality
Moral: can there be moral knowledge? Are there objective moral truths? Is morality founded in nature or convention?
For Plato, goodness and being are intimately connected. Plato’s universe is value-ridden at its very foundations: value is there from the start, not imposed upon an antiseptic, value-neutral reality by the likes of us – external imposers of value on what in itself has no intrinsic value.   S. Marc Cohen

Objective morality  By Marinus Jan Marijs
If stages of moral sensitivity developed over time, how can there be objective morality?
Moral values seem to be different at diverse times, places and circumstances in all cultures.
But one has to take into consideration that  within humans, developmental stages do occur.

Relating to Space perception / structuration:
A house,
street,
city,
region,
country,
continent,
planet,
solar system,
galaxy and
the Universe.

And:

Relating to Time perception / structuration:
Personal time,
cultural time,
archaeological time,
paleo logical time,
geological time and
 cosmological time

Further:

The discovery of universal mathematical truths are realised in advancing developmental phases.
Nevertheless they are universal and not subjective points of view which can be interpreted arbitrary.

 Morality, like Space perception / structuration, Time perception / structuration and the discoveries of universal mathematical truths, progresses through stages toward universal, objective principles.
While the frame of reference changes, there may be a current states of development, however, moral laws are objective, invariant and are built into the structure of reality.
 
If morality is seen as subjective, it can be neglected or corrupted easily. 
This can be seen in historical developments of many cultures especially within wars where ethical principles are totally absent.
For example in the second world war Stalin and Hitler completely threw aside what few morals and restrictions they had, utterly disregarding any costs in life, both military and civilian.
C.S. Lewis about objective morality

This law was called the Law of human Nature, the moral law or the law of decent behaviour, because people thought that every one knew it by nature anddid not need to be taught it. They did not mean, of course, that you might not find an odd individual here and there who did not know it, just as you find a few people who are colour-blind or have no ear for a tune. But taking the race as a whole, they thought that the human idea of decent behaviour was obvious to every one. And I believe they were right. If they were not, then all the things we said about

the war were nonsense. What was the sense in saying the enemy were in the wrong unless Right is a real thing which the Nazis at bottom knew as well as we did and ought to have practised? If they had

had no notion of what we mean by right, then, though we might still have had to fight them, we could no more have blamed them for that than for the colour of their hair.

I know that some people say the idea of a Law of Nature or decent behaviour known to all men is unsound, because different civilisations and different ages have had quite different moralities.

But this is not true. There have been differences between their moralities, but these have never amounted to anything like a total difference. If anyone will take the trouble to compare the moral teaching of, say, the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindus, Chinese, Greeks and Romans, what will really strike him will be how very like they are to each other and to our own. Some of the evidence for this I have put together in the appendix of another book called The Abolition of Man; but for our present purpose I need only ask the reader to think what a totally different morality would mean. Think

of a country where people were admired for running away in battle, or where a man felt proud of

double-crossing all the people who had been kindest to him.

You might just as well try to imagine a country where two and two made five. Men have differed as

regards what people you ought to be unselfish to—whether it was only your own family, or your fellow countrymen, or everyone. But they have always agreed that you ought not to put yourself first.

Selfishness has never been admired. Men have differed as to whether you should have one wife or four. But they have always agreed that you must not simply have any woman you liked.

But the most remarkable thing is this. Whenever you find a man who says he does not believe in a real Right and Wrong, you will find the same man going back on this a moment later. He may break his promise to you, but if you try breaking one to him he will be complaining “It’s not fair” before you can say Jack Robinson. A nation may say treaties do not matter, but then, next minute, they spoil their case by saying that the particular treaty they want to break was an unfair one. But if treaties do not matter,

and if there is no such thing as Right and Wrong— in other words, if there is no Law of Nature—what is the difference between a fair treaty and an unfair one? Have they not let the cat out of the bag and shown that, whatever they say, they really know the Law of Nature just like anyone else?

It seems, then, we are forced to believe in a real Right and Wrong. People may be sometimes mistaken about them, just as people sometimes get their sums wrong; but they are not a matter of mere taste and opinion any more than the multiplication” table.

Five major domains
Di­verse domains of human thought

Different validity claims
Different domains have different validity claims
there are five major domains of reality:

The aesthetic,
The cognitive,
The interpersonal,
The moral,
The spiritual.  

These five groups do interact with each other but each of these groups cannot be brought back to one of the four other groups.

They are represented collectively in society, as well as individually within human psychological development.

Each have their own institutes and systems:

The aesthetic: the museums and the art institutes
The cognitive: the knowledge institutes, technological systems
The interpersonal: the hospitals, the social systems, the communicative systems
The moral: the judicial institutes, legal systems, the laws
The spiritual: the churches, the monasteries the religious systems 

Each have their own validity claim:
The aesthetic: is it beautiful
The cognitive: is it factual, is it true
The interpersonal: is it sociable, is it communicative
The moral: is it righteous
The spiritual: is it meaningful   

If one ignores one of these five groups within society, then some major imbalance will be the result. 

It is important that one doesn’t use the wrong validity claim for a specific domain.

About the five realms: The aesthetic: The cognitive, The interpersonal,
The moral and The spiritual:
These are fundamental issues, and  no clear solutions for societies problem will come forward unless the interrelating features of all these domains  are seen to come into play. No one of these issues will be resolved in isolation from the others. About this subject   See: https://marinusjanmarijs.nl/evidence-based-approach/14-research-areas/cosmological-planning/platonic-forms/

Positive attitude
Compassion: feeling or showing sympathy and concern for others.
Gratitude: the quality of being thankful; readiness to show appreciation for and to return kindness.

Negative attitude
Resentment
Focussing on negative emotions
A complex, multilayered emotion^[1] that has been described as a mixture of disappointment, disgust, anger, and fear
Inherent in resentment is a perception of unfairness (i.e. from trivial to very serious), and a generalized defense against unfair situations.
This can be because of factual unfairness or injustice, but also of being confronted with the (magnificent) achievements of others that  one cannot hope to equal.
Lacking empathy
Envious, jealous,

Tyrannical
Severely and harshly restrictive and controlling; oppressive
To abuse power for personal gain
To force their will unto a group of people
Hostility
Revenge
=====================================================

Nihilism: The rejection of all religious and moral principles, in the belief that life is meaningless.
Nihilism, philosophy that denies the existence of genuine moral truths and asserts the ultimate meaninglessness of life or of the universe.

 The complete rejection of moral values and religious beliefs. It is such a negative outlook that it denies any meaning or purpose in life.
one form of nihilism as “an extreme form of scepticism

This nihilistic philosophy is deeply unsatisfying, but that is not its only deficit. Nihilism leads to  exaggerations of the worst vices of humanity: envy, greed, and selfishness

The suicide rate among atheists and nihilists is a multiple to that of non-atheistic groups.
See:

The statistical data:
The Amarican Journal of Psychiatry
Religious Affiliation and Suicide Attempt    by K Dervic · 2004
https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2303

 

Epidemiology of suicide – Wikipedia

In a global study on atheism, sociologist Phil Zuckerman noted countries with higher levels of atheism had the highest suicide rates compared to countries with “statistically insignificant levels of organic atheism.”^[44]

===============================================================

Pathologies
The conditions, processes, or results of a particular disease or dysfunction .

Modern tribalism
The meaning of TRIBALISM is tribal consciousness and loyalty; especially : exaltation of the tribe above other groups.

The continental tradition within philosophy with
Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Nietzsche with their sophistication, who were considered to be the most brilliant intellectuals, were shaping the entire intellectual culture of Germany.
Their philosophy however was one  of violence and conflict
they did lay the philosophical groundwork which resulted in the political disasters in the twentieth century.
Their advocacy of war and violent revolutions, as a means to an end, included: collectivism, group identity,
nationalism, ethnicity, and anti-Semitism.
Their publications provided a theoretical rational for destructiveness, brutality, wars, and national socialism.
Their ideology was the underlying case that motivated military conflicts, the wars and the holocaust.
Within the German academic world of the 19^th century there was a significant support for militarism, anti-Semitic ideologies by intellectuals.
This all with the terrible consequences that played out in the twentieth century

This does leave us with the following question:
why did the German culture which was well educated, a society which brought forward the highest forms of art, music, literature, science and technology, deemed it acceptable, or even desirable and necessary to cross lands borders with millions of soldiers, with highly sophisticated weapon systems with the aim of killing millions of people and stealing their land, possessions and natural resources. They committed genocide, mass murder on a large scale.
And they were widely supported by leading intellectuals 
see:  
https://www.stephenhicks.org/2009/12/09/appendix-3-quotations-on-german-anti-semitism-nietzsche-and-the-nazis/

Pathological  viewpoints
What did Kant say about war?

Perhaps most explicitly, Kant says that: “In the state of nature, the right to make war (i.e., to enter into hostilities) is the permitted means by which one state prosecutes its rights against another”

While Fichte officially defines nationality in terms of language and culture, his linguistic–cultural nationalism ultimately collapses into ethnic national- ism

“In nearly all the nations of Europe, a powerful, hostile government is growing, and is at war with all the others, and sometimes oppresses the people in dreadful ways: It is Jewry.”— Johann Gottlieb Fichte

According to Hegel, war is a “positive moment” wherein the state asserts itself as an individual, establishing its rights and interests. Sacrifice on behalf of the ‘individuality’ of the state is the “substantial tie between the state and its members—and so is a universal duty.”

Hegel alludes to Kant’s when he writes that, “Just as the blowing of the winds preserves the sea from the foulness which would be the result of a prolonged calm, so also corruption in nations would be the product of prolonged, let alone ‘perpetual’ peace.” Warfare constitutes a form of purification.

Hegel does not offer principles for distinguishing wars of conquest from defensive wars—i.e., for determining if a war is just. Each individual state will determine what injuries it can absorb and which ones constitute a justification for war.

War, Hegel believes, is a “positive moment” wherein the state asserts itself as an individual, establishing its rights and interests. Sacrifice on behalf of the ‘individuality’ of the state is the “substantial tie between the state and its members—and so is a universal duty.”

A declaration of war on the masses by higher men is needed! … Everything that makes soft and effeminate, that serves the end of the people or the feminine, works in favor of universal suffrage, i.e. the domination of the inferior men. But we should take reprisal and bring this whole affair to light and the bar of judgment.
Friedrich Nietzsche

Thus do I want man and woman to be: the one fit to wage war and the other fit to give birth, but both fit to dance with head and feet.
Friedrich Nietzsche

Many other such substitutes for war will be discovered, but perhaps precisely thereby it will become more and more obvious that such a highly cultivated and therefore necessarily enfeebled humanity as that of modern Europe not only needs wars, but the greatest and most terrible wars, consequently occasional relapses into barbarism, lest, by the means of culture, it should lose its culture and its very existence.
Friedrich Nietzsche

You say a good cause justifies any war; but I say a good war justifies any cause.
Friedrich Nietzsche

   
These German philosophers were warmongering, and wrote anti-Semitic articles
Their regressive collectivist and group identity approach was illogical, asocial, immoral and would have disastrous consequences. 
Nazism and fascism didn’t just manifest themselves out of nowhere

Kant endorsed a modified just war theory, however those who did start an unjust war, generally claimed it to be a just war.

History is a challenge to those who think war is ever justifiable.

Marxism
Regressive
The political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
While stated as a progressive movement to improve the lives of the lower classes, different systems that were based upon Marxism such as Stalinism, Maoism and so on became responsible for the death of tens of millions.
This by inefficient food production systems, or willfully murdering people by purposeful starvation.
Nikita Khrushchev acknowledged  publicly in a speech,  delivered at the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, February 25,1956, that Joseph Stalin’s regime had slaughtered tens of millions of human  beings,
Stalin had had millions of  his own citizens tortured, subjected to inhuman deprivations, executed, or sent to die in Siberian labor camps. What had been   dismissed as capitalist propaganda was now revealed as true   by the leader of the communist world:

Alexander Solzhenitsyn’s The Gulag Archipelago, first published in the West in 1973,  was the most widely read and condemnatory. Solzhenitsyn’s   book drew upon extensive research and Solzhenitsyn’s own   first hand experience of eight years’ imprisonment in the labor
camps for the crime of having written in 1945 a letter critical of   Stalin’s regime

The ideological progressive movement, became extremely regressive when a striving for equality was replaced with resentment, hatred and bitterness, with disastrous  consequences.
 

Paradigm shift
A fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions and values shared by the members of a group.

Logical fallacies is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning, in the construction of an argument
Logical fallacies are flawed, deceptive, or false arguments that can be proven wrong with reasoning.
Make fallacious arguments
Generalising
Inconsistency
Here below are common logical fallacies you may encounter during an argument or debate:
===============================================================

Informal fallacies
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
12
11
10
9
8
7
6  Argument to moderation (false compromise) Onus
    probandi (burden of proof is on the person who makes
    the claim
5  Reification (an abstraction is treated as if it was a
    concrete, real event or physical entity. Raising the bar
    (demand greater evidence) Psychologist fallacy (an
    observer presupposes the objectivity of his own
    perspective) Incomplete comparison (not enough
    information is available for a conclusion
4  Shifting the burden of proof. Etymological fallacy
    False dilemma (black or white thinking)
    Fallacy of quoting out of context
3  Kettle logic Loaded question
    Red herring (changed the subject)
2  Oversimplification
    Mind projection fallacy
===============================================================

===============================================================

Faulty generalisations + Conditional or questionable..
fallacies Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
12
11
10
9
8
7  Common sense fallacy
6  Slippery slope
5  Ignoring an exception to a generalisation
    Black swan blindness
4  False analogy
    Hasty generalisation
3  Cherry picking
2  Thought-terminating cliché
1
1==============================================================

Linguistic
The truth or falsity of any statement depends on the          meaning of the words used.
A lack of precision

Linguistic fallacies: A linguistic fallacy is a type of informal fallacy that relates to a language-related defect in an argument. Linguistic fallacies might involve using words or sentences that have vague, unclear, or multiple meanings or other inconsistencies.
A linguistic fallacy is a type of informal fallacy that relates to a language-related defect in an argument. Linguistic fallacies might involve using words or sentences that have vague, unclear, or multiple meanings or other inconsistencies

Linguistic Fallacies

• Accent: Emphasis that changes the meaning of the sentence.
• Amphiboly: A sentence has two different meanings.
• Composition: Generalizing from a few to the whole set.
• Division: Assuming the parts have the characteristics of the whole.
• Equivocation: A single word with more than one meaning.

 

language manipulation
Manipulating phrases and sentences that are in fact fabrication

social rhetorical manipulation

Quality of information 
Dimensions and metrics of information quality
Richard Wang and Diane Strong propose a list of dimensions or elements used in assessing Information Quality is:^[5]

• Intrinsic Information Quality: accuracy, objectivity, Believability, reputation
• Contextual Information Quality: relevance, value-added, Timeliness, Completeness, amount of information
• Representational Information Quality: interpretability, format, coherence, compatibility
• Accessibility Information Quality: accessibility, access security

Other authors propose similar but different lists of dimensions for analysis, and emphasize measurement and reporting as information quality metrics. Larry English prefers the term “characteristics” to dimensions. In fact, a considerable amount of information quality research involves investigating and describing various categories of desirable attributes (or dimensions) of data. Research has recently shown the huge diversity of terms and classification structures used.

While information as a distinct term has various ambiguous definitions, there’s one which is more general, such as “description of events”. While the occurrences being described cannot be subjectively evaluated for quality, since they’re very much autonomous events in space and time, their description can—since it possesses a garnishment attribute, unavoidably attached by the medium which carried the information, from the initial moment of the occurrences being described.

In an attempt to deal with this natural phenomenon, qualified professionals primarily representing the researchers’ guild, have at one point or another identified particular metrics for information quality. They could also be described as ‘quality traits’ of information, since they’re not so easily quantified, but rather subjectively identified on an individual basis.

Quality metrics

• authority/verifiability

Authority refers to the expertise or recognized official status of a source. Consider the reputation of the author and publisher. When working with legal or government information, consider whether the source is the official provider of the information. Verifiability refers to the ability of a reader to verify the validity of the information irrespective of how authoritative the source is. To verify the facts is part of the duty of care of the journalistic deontology, as well as, where possible, to provide the sources of information so that they can be verified

• Scope of coverage

Scope of coverage refers to the extent to which a source explores a topic. Consider time periods, geography or jurisdiction and coverage of related or narrower topics.

• Composition and organization

Composition and organization has to do with the ability of the information source to present its particular message in a coherent, logically sequential manner.

• Objectivity

Objectivity is the bias or opinion expressed when a writer interprets or analyze facts. Consider the use of persuasive language, the source’s presentation of other viewpoints, its reason for providing the information and advertising.

• Integrity

1. Adherence to moral and ethical principles; soundness of moral character
2. The state of being whole, entire, or undiminished

• Comprehensiveness

1. Of large scope; covering or involving much; inclusive: a comprehensive study.
2. Comprehending mentally; having an extensive mental grasp.
3. covering or providing broad protection against loss.

• Validity

Validity of some information has to do with the degree of obvious truthfulness which the information carries

• Uniqueness

As much as ‘uniqueness’ of a given piece of information is intuitive in meaning, it also significantly implies not only the originating point of the information but also the manner in which it is presented and thus the perception which it conjures. The essence of any piece of information we process consists to a large extent of those two elements.

• Timeliness

Timeliness refers to information that is current at the time of publication. Consider publication, creation and revision dates. Beware of Web site scripting that automatically reflects the current day’s date on a page.

• Reproducibility (utilized primarily when referring to instructive information)

Means that documented methods are capable of being used on the same data set to achieve a consistent result.

Dogmatism: The tendency to lay down principles as undeniably true, without consideration of evidence or the opinions of others

Fundamentalism: Refers to “black‐and‐white” thinking that opposes modernism, or progressive thinking about religion and other social topics.

Polarisation: Division into two sharply contrasting groups or sets of opinions or beliefs.

Pathologies: Mental, social, or linguistic abnormality or malfunction.
Within pre-modernism
Collectivism
Conformity
Group identity
Group identification
Anti-individualism

Within modernism
reductionism
Mechanised warfare
Industrialised mass murder
 
Within postmodernism
Rejection of logic
Rejection of morality, sees morality as  personal  
          preference
Rejection of quality standards
Rejection of metanarratives, while being itself a metanarrative
To place ideological preconceptions above an evidence based worldview

Obscurantism
Obscurantism, sophistry, slogans, linguistic tricks, logical fallacies, Fuzzy language, obscure language, changing the definition of words
This deals with mys­tification, deliberately obscure language, confused thinking, and the misuse of scientific concepts.

2. Not all that is obscure is necessarily profound. There is a huge difference between discourses that are difficult because of the inherent nature of their subject and those whose vacuity or banality is carefully hidden behind deliberately obscure prose. (This problem is by no means specific to the humanities or social sciences; many articles in physics and mathematics use a language more complicated than is strictly necessary.)

Meaning
The significance
Definition: A concern with ultimate issues and the meaning of life.
noun

what is intended to be, or actually is, expressed or indicated; signification; import: the three meanings of a word.

the end, purpose, or significance of something: What is the meaning of life? What is the meaning of this intrusion?

Linguistics.

1. the nonlinguistic cultural correlate, reference, or denotation of a linguistic form; expression.
2. linguistic content (opposed to expression).

adjective

intentioned (usually used in combination): She’s a well-meaning person.

full of significance; expressive: a meaning look.

Definition of meaning

 (Entry 1 of 2)

1a : the thing one intends to convey especially by language : purportDo not mistake my meaning.

b : the thing that is conveyed especially by language : importMany words have more than one meaning.

2 : something meant or intended : aima mischievous meaning was apparent

3 : significant quality especially : implication of a hidden or special significance a glance full of meaning

4a : the logical connotation of a word or phrase

b : the logical denotation or extension of a word or phrase

meaning

adjective

Definition of meaning (Entry 2 of 2)

: conveying or intended to convey meaning : significant, meaningful a meaning smile

1. variable noun

The meaning of a word, expression, or gesture is the thing or idea that it refers to or represents and which can be explained using other words.

I hadn’t a clue to the meaning of ‘activism’. [+ of]

I became more aware of the symbols and their meanings.

Synonyms: significance, message, explanation, substance  

2. variable noun

Meaningless: Without meaning, significance, purpose, or value; purposeless; insignificant
Meaning or relevance
As in:Using terms that are so vague that they can mean very different concepts, or even mean opposite things

Metaphors that these texts are often ambiguous and can be read in at least two distinct ways
 
The role of metaphors
The role o f metaphors. Some people will no doubt think that we are interpreting these authors too literally and that the passages we quote should be read as metaphors rather than as precise logical arguments. Indeed, in certain cases the “science” is undoubtedly intended metaphorically; but what is the pur­pose of these metaphors? After all, a metaphor is usually employed to clarify art unfamiliar concept by relating it to a more familiar one, not the reverse.

Teleology: Is a reason or explanation for something as a function of its end, purpose, or goal, as opposed to as a function of its cause.

Aesthetics: A set of principles concerned with the nature and appreciation of beauty.
Definition: A quality or combination of qualities that gives pleasure to the mind or senses and is often associated with properties such as harmony of form or colour, proportion, authenticity, and originality.
Dealing with aesthetic preferences
poetic discourse
Free association
Aesthetic play
Performance art
==========================================================

Levels of beauty (Umberto Eco, ‘derived from ‘The history
of beauty’)
12
11  Kosmic harmonious beauty (consonance of equals
      and unequals)
10  Epiphanic beauty (experience of stunning and
      striking realisation)
9  Autonomous beauty (not detached to materials,
   ‘inner’ and eternal)
8  ublime beauty (stunning infinity of physical
    objects or surroundings)
7  Organic beauty (mutual cooperation between
    things)
6  Harmonious beauty (balance between contrasts)
5  Objective beauty (perspective, dimensional)
4  Proportional beauty (geometrical forms)
3  Dainty beauty (social status based)
2  Pleasing
===============================================================

Art: The expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.
The various branches of creative activity, such as painting, music, literature, and dance.

Different Forms of Art

• Painting.
• Sculpture.
• Literature.
• Architecture.
• Cinema.
• Music.
  Theater.

the arts, also called fine arts, modes of expression that use skill or imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, or experiences that can be shared with others.

Traditional categories within the arts include literature (including poetry, drama, story, and so on), the visual arts (painting, drawing, sculpture, etc.), the graphic arts (painting, drawing, design, and other forms expressed on flat surfaces), the plastic arts (sculpture, modeling), the decorative arts (enamelwork, furniture design, mosaic, etc.), the performing arts (theatre, dance, music), music (as composition), and architecture (often including interior design).

The arts are treated in a number of articles. For general discussions of the foundations, principles, practice, and character of the arts, see aesthetics. For the technical and theoretical aspects of several arts, see architecture, calligraphy, dance, drawing, literature, motion picture, music, painting, photography, printmaking, sculpture, and theatre. See also the historical discussions in history of the motion picture and history of photography.

Technical and historical discussions of decorative arts and furnishings can be found in basketry, enamelwork, floral decoration, furniture, glassware, interior design, lacquerwork, metalwork, mosaic, pottery, rug and carpet, stained glass, and tapestry.

• By The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
  
  Maturation
  Maturation: is a stage of completion of growth and strengthening of acquired mental, social and emotional development. Maturation is essentially a process of refinement and modification from within and inborn ripening and progress of capacities of the organism
  .
  Stages of development
  Maturation is a stage of completion of growth and strengthening of acquired mental, social and emotional development. Maturation is essentially a process of refinement and modification from within and inborn ripening and progress of capacities of the organism.
  
  Developing physical resilience
  Developing emotional resilience
  Developing social resilience
  Developing intellectual resilience
  Developing philosophical resilience
  Developing resilience
  ===========================================================

  Parenting styles (level-specific)
  Matthéüs van de Pol
  Definition: Level specific parenting strategies for a healthy enfoldment of maturation patterns and structures

  12 Divine (energetic) radiance
  11 Presencing
  10 Energetic transfer (‘shaktipat’)
  9 Spiritual guidance
  8 Mentoring
  7 Counselling
  6 Coaching
  5 Negotiation
  4 Tutoring
  3 Boundering
  2 Instructing
  1 Sensing
  ===========================================================

  Psychological development, maturation
  Baby
  Toddler
  Child
  Puberty
  Adulthood

 

A modern approach to the psychosocial changes of these phases is based on the concept of developmental tasks in an age-appropriate and stage-appropriate way. Biological processes can influence an individual’s psychological and psychosocial state, but psychological and psychosocial events may also influence the biological systems. Therefore, the timing and outcome of pubertal processes can be modified by psychosocial factors. The most important psychological and psychosocial changes in puberty and early adolescence are the emergence of abstract thinking, the growing ability of absorbing the perspectives or viewpoints of others, an increased ability of introspection, the development of personal and sexual identity, the establishment of a system of values, increasing autonomy from family and more personal independence, greater importance of peer relationships of sometimes subcultural quality, and the emergence of skills and coping strategies to overcome problems and crises. All these changes can be looked on as developmental tasks during normal development

Communication
The imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium.
===============================================================

Communication
Marinus Jan Marijs / Matthéüs van de Pol
Definition: Level specific transferring of information.

8 Intuitive resonance
7 Synthetic vision
6 Perspective taking
5 Logical persuasion
4 Propaganda
3 Indoctrination
2 Emotional hype
1 Behavioural conditioning
===============================================================

Regression
A return to a former or less developed state.
a return to a previous and less advanced or worse state, condition, or way of behaving
Implicit  rejection of rational thought
Divisive instead of. Unifying
Absence of logic, morality, gratitude and compassion
Absence of dialogue, consensus through the exchange of ideas,

Dynamic of regression
Regressive: returning to a former or less developed state; characterized by regression.

Tending to return or revert to a previous state.

Characterized by regression or a tendency to regress

Progression,
stabilisation,
regression

With many Phase transitions there is the risk to fail,
and with that a regressive: returning to a former or less developed state, even lower than the state one started from 

Authoritarian regression to Totalitarianism.
Totalitarianism. regression to Tribalism

Internationalism regression to  nationalism
Nationalism regression to Ultra nationalism
Ultra nationalism regression to racism.
Racism regression to tribalism

Regressive
Dynamic of regression         

Regression has great implications to one’s way of thinking:

Order vs. Entropy
Evolving  vs. De-evolving
Innovative vs. Conditioned reflexes
Flexible vs. Dogmatic
Open-minded vs. Prejudiced 
Knowledgeable vs. Ignorant
Education vs. Indoctrination
Open-minded vs. Bigoted
Fact-based vs. To deny evidence
Friendly vs, Hostile
Maturing vs. Infantilize

Psychological regression
       Integrated multi-perspectivism regression to non-
       Integrated multi-perspectivism.

     multi-perspectivism. regression to singular Abstract
       thinking

       Abstract thinking ,regression to concrete operational
       thinking

      Concrete operational thinking, regression to
      representational thinking

       Representational thinking regression to Emotionality.
       Emotionality regression to Physical violence

Regression In political systems
Democracy: regression to Oligarchy.
Authoritarian regression to Totalitarianism.
Totalitarianism. regression to Tribalism
 and
Internationalism regression to  nationalism
Nationalism regression to Ultra nationalism
Ultra nationalism regression to tribalism / racism

Modern communication technologies

DEFINITION: This  is a general term that includes any communication device or application encompassing radio, television cellular phones etc as well as the various services and applications associated with them. Examples are video conferencing and distance learning.

Interdisciplinary: An interdisciplinary approach involves drawing appropriately from several disciplines (or separate branches of learning or fields of expertise) to redefine problems outside of normal boundaries and reach solutions based on a new understanding of complex situations.
An interdisciplinary approach involves drawing appropriately from several disciplines (or separate branches of learning or fields of expertise) to redefine problems outside of normal boundaries and reach solutions based on a new understanding of complex situations.

Subjectivism
The doctrine that knowledge is merely subjective and that there is no external or objective truth.

Relativism:
The doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute, is an absolute statement.

Skeptical relativism: no views are ultimately or objectively true, but each is merely one person’s opinion

 It is the claim that standards of truth, rationality, and ethical right and wrong vary greatly between cultures and historical epochs and that there are no universal criteria for adjudicating between them.
The problem with individual moral relativism is that it lacks a concept of guiding principles of right or wrong. … While thinkers of cultural relativism are clear that it is wrong to impose one’s own cultural values over another, some cultures hold a central value of intolerance.

Pretentiousness
characterized by assumption of dignity or importance, especially when exaggerated or undeserved
Not to use a language more complicated than is strictly necessary
pomposity verboseness posturing

Pseudo intellectualism
A person who claims proficiency in scholarly or artistic activities while lacking in-depth knowledge or critical understanding.
full of oneself, opinionated,
Trying to impress the reader with tech­nical jargon
ideas, often  poorly formulated
To use texts that are entirely devoid of meaning

Criticism should be accompanied by an adequate solution of the identified problem.
 
Pseudo intellectual
A person who claims proficiency in scholarly or artistic activities while lacking in-depth knowledge or critical understanding.
To be uninformed and use fallacious arguments
Status seeking
Popularity
Ego driven
motive: power seeking
Status oriented
Ideological conditioned
the emperor’s new clothes

Nihilism
Worldview based upon a complete, psychological projection

Scepticism and Pseudo-scepticism
an exaggerated sense of one’s importance that shows itself in the making of excessive or unjustified claims
To make claims outside ones field of expertise
To make claims without being acquainted with the relevant data, literature, not being up-to-date

Falsification: Twisting reality to fit their worldview

Scepticism
In Western philosophy, the attitude of doubting knowledge claims set forth in various areas. Skeptics have challenged the adequacy or reliability of these claims by asking what principles they are based upon or what they actually establish. They have questioned whether some such claims really are, as alleged, indubitable or necessarily true, and they have challenged the purported rational grounds of accepted assumptions. In everyday life, practically everyone is skeptical about some knowledge claims; but philosophical skeptics have doubted the possibility of any knowledge beyond that of the contents of directly felt experience.
While scepticism is legitimate, it is a system of methodological doubt, its modern use is frequently to claim authority for oneself or ones viewpoint. 

Pseudo-scepticism
Pseudo-scepticism  (also spelled as pseud-scepticism) is a philosophical or scientific position that appears to be that of scepticism or scientific scepticism but in reality is a form of dogmatism.

Maliciousness
Intentional distortions
Reputation demolition
with the intent to destroy
Destructive deconstructivism
Revengeful
Scapegoats / scapegoating

Psychological biases
Cognitive or psychological bias is the tendency to make decisions or take action in an unknowingly irrational way. It can harm not only your decision making, but also your judgment, values, and social interactions.

A cognitive bias is a systematic error in thinking that occurs when people are processing and interpreting information in the world around them and affects the decisions and judgments that they make.
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-cognitive-bias-2794963 

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Antagonism is hostility that results in active resistance, opposition, or contentiousness
Blaming outside factors when things don’t go your way

Di­verse domains of human thought

Different Scientific world-views

Materialism: the theory or belief that nothing exists except matter and its movements and modifications.

There are two problems with the above. First of all, the assumption that the universe is a closed system is not a physical theory but rather a metaphysical assumption
once held by some classical physicists (although certainly not held by Newton and Maxwell, both deeply religious). This assumption does not follow directly from anything in classical physics. An argument has also been made by Wigner, Neumann, and others that modern physics – quantum mechanics – has brought mind back into nature and has thus eliminated the causal closure of the physical.
Many modern physicists believe that that the universe is not a closed system and that the collapse of the wavefunction – a physical event – is linked with an
antecedent mental event

Materialism breeds nihilism and fosters humanity’s worst vices.
Interest in spirituality is increasing because the answer to the big questions, as provided by
scientific materialism, is that we are here as accidents of a purely random, meaningless universe
[99,100]. Materialism tells us that there is no purpose to anything. When we die, we are forever
extinguished, and our atoms are recycled into other purposeless creatures. Eventually, all the
suns will burn out, the universe will grow cold.

Already in the late 18th and early
19th centuries, Immanuel Kant and Arthur Schopenhauer maintained that what we ordinarily refer to as ‘matter’ is merely an internal cognitive representation of ours, not the substance of reality [7, 8]. Both also maintained that space and time are categories of perception, not an objective empty box where nature places itself in.
Moreover, according to Schopenhauer [8], even Plato himself, two and a half
thousand years ago, already had this insight

But then something very strange happens: physicalists start taking the descriptions
for the thing described, the map for the territory.

Within academic  environments it is taught that there is a reductionist and materialist explanation  for everything.

Giving a lecture in Florence, Planck told his audience  havingstudied the atom ”I am telling you that there is no matter as such. All matter arises and persists only due to a force that causes the atomic particles to vibrate, holding them together in the tiniest of solar systems, the atom.We
have since revised this model: it is only the measurement of the electron’s position that creates a point-like particle, meaning that unmeasured electrons should be thought of more like waves (or fields), creating an electron ‘cloud’ around the atomic nucleus in which there is a probability of
finding an electron.
The materiality of things – this page, the eyes reading it and so on – are mostly empty spaces defined by probabilities surrounding infinitesimal balls of quarks in gluon fields.221 That is certainlynot how we experience reality in the everyday world. And the immateriality of ghosts and consciousness suddenly seems less problematic.”

Near the end of his life, Einstein famously wrote that “The distinction between past, present, and
future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion. The problem persists: the British physicist Paul Davies also confessed that “To be perfectly honest, neither scientists nor philosophers really know what time is or why it exists.”

Stratification
Pre-Modern
Modernism
Postmodernism
===============================================================

Levels
5  Individualism
4  Collectivist
3  Pre-modern reliance upon tradition
    the feudal regimes
2  Tribalism
==============================================================

Far Left?  One dimensional spectrum
It isn’t helpful to use the term “far-left” without defining it. Terms so vague and ambiguous are close to useless. As far as the debate over capitalism v. socialism, you are conflating “socialism” with Stalinist state dictatorship which is extremely misleading and unfair to the vast majority of those who consider themselves to be socialists.
These characterisations fall prey to false dichotomies and vague language.
These structurisations  are extremely simplistic, and also incorrect, The “Far Left” isn’t progressive in an extreme manner, it is regressive,   
 This is especially the case with postmodernism

Paradigmatic shifts
This leads us to collective sociological, economic, philosophic, technologic, moral, communicative, ideological and informational systems or structures.
 
A paradigm shift, a concept identified by the American physicist and philosopher Thomas Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. Even though Kuhn restricted the use of the term to the natural sciences, the concept of a paradigm shift has also been used in numerous non-scientific contexts to describe a profound change in a fundamental model or perception of events.

Kuhn presented his notion of a paradigm shift in his influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962).

Kuhn contrasts paradigm shifts, which characterize a scientific revolution, to the activity of normal science, which he describes as scientific work done within a prevailing framework or paradigm. Paradigm shifts arise when the dominant paradigm under which normal science operates is rendered incompatible with new phenomena, facilitating the adoption of a new theory or paradigm.^[1]

As one commentator summarizes:

Kuhn acknowledges having used the term “paradigm” in two different meanings. In the first one, “paradigm” designates what the members of a certain scientific community have in common, that is to say, the whole of techniques, patents and values shared by the members of the community. In the second sense, the paradigm is a single element of a whole, say for instance Newton’s Principia, which, acting as a common model or an example… stands for the explicit rules and thus defines a coherent tradition of investigation. Thus the question is for Kuhn to investigate by means of the paradigm what makes possible the constitution of what he calls “normal science”. That is to say, the science which can decide if a certain problem will be considered scientific or not. Normal science does not mean at all a science guided by a coherent system of rules, on the contrary, the rules can be derived from the paradigms, but the paradigms can guide the investigation also in the absence of rules. This is precisely the second meaning of the term “paradigm”, which Kuhn considered the most new and profound, though it is in truth the oldest.^[2]  (Wikipedia)

With a new paradigm, previous theories, techniques, values and worldviews are revaluated.
While new paradigms show most of the time mistakes within the old paradigm, some critics by overgeneralising, throw away all elements of the old paradigm.
This is especially the case with existentialism and post-modernism

Materialism is the rather meaningless outdated 19^th century propositional quasi-scientific hypothesis  
It makes the error of assigning to something a quality or action which can only properly be assigned to things of another category, such as treating abstract concepts as though they had a physical location.

Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a late 20th-century movement in philosophy and literary theory that generally questions the basic assumptions of Western philosophy in the modern period (roughly, the 17th century through the 19th century).

Modernism and the Enlightenment
In philosophy, modernism’s essentials are put forward by Francis Bacon (1561-1626) René Descartes (1596-1650) and John Locke (1632-1704), for their influence upon all aspects of philosophy. Bacon, Descartes, and Locke are modern because of their  philosophical naturalism, their confidence in reason and their individualism..
Modern thinkers start from nature—instead of starting with tradition, which had been the starting point of pre-modern, Medieval philosophy. Modern thinkers stress that perception and reason are the human means of knowing nature—in contrast to the pre-modern reliance upon tradition. Modern thinkers stress human autonomy and the human capacity for forming one’s own character—Modern thinkers emphasize the individual, seeing the individual as the unit of reality, holding that the individual’s mind is self-determining, and that the individual is of ultimate value—in contrast to the pre-modernist, feudal subordination of the individual to higher political, social, or religious authorities..

a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent figures included Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith.

After three centuries of modernistic philosophy, an evaluation of the basic assumptions of modernism, its theoretical approaches, methods and practical implications was seen as necessary.
This already took place by existentialist philosophers, in the last part of the 19th-century.

One first glance modernism brought forward a great number of sociological, technological improvements

the tremendous intellectual and scientific progress of the age, but also because of the expectation of the age that philosophy (in the broad sense of the time, which includes the natural and social sciences) would dramatically improve human life.

There was the dramatic success of the new science in explaining the natural world

Taking as the core of the Enlightenment the aspiration for intellectual progress, and the belief in the power of such progress to improve human society and individual lives,

For Enlightenment thinkers themselves, however, the Enlightenment is not an historical period, but a process of social, psychological or spiritual development, unbound to time or place.

Newton’s   system did contribute significantly to the advance of natural science in the period. He changed the long-standing assumptions of the scholastic-aristotelians whose intellectual dominance stood in the way of the development of the new science; he developed a conception of matter that enabled mechanical explanation of physical phenomena; and he developed some of the fundamental mathematical resources – in particular, a way to employ algebraic equations to solve geometrical problems – that enabled the physical domain to be explained with precise, simple mathematical formulae. Furthermore, his grounding of physics, and all knowledge, in a relatively simple and elegant rationalist metaphysics provides a model of a rigorous and complete system of knowledge.

Modernism and the Enlightenment produced an improvement of:
Living standards
Technological development,
Innovation,
Engineering,
Productivity,

Health care systems,
Economic distribution
Control over major infection disease
Availability of food,
Public services
Civil and Political rights
Freedom and self-determination
Universal human rights
Judiciary systems
Medical treatments
Educational systems
Higher Life expectancy at birth
Improved means of transportation
Social organisation
Knowledge acquisition and structuring
Quality of education
Quality of healthcare
Infrastructure
Public services
Business Environment
Free market system
Personal Freedom.  
Freedom of speech and religion,
Access to clean drinking water
Lower infant mortality rate
Sanitation facility access
Literacy rate
The development of effective medicine
Free trade
Encouraging entrepreneurship
Lifted people out of abject poverty
Eliminating starvation

Modernism and the Enlightenment in many situations didn’t produced or at least a didn’t produce a significant improvement of:
A fair Economic distribution
Trust in organisations, institutions and governments
Health care for everyone
A fair Income distribution
Job security
Accuracy, efficiency, relevancy and inclusiveness of information
Environmental sustainability
Gender equality
Physical safety, there are still wars,
Political stability
Social inclusion.
Social equality
Universal Social safety net
Civil and Political rights for everyone,
Fair Judiciary systems
National tolerance for minorities (immigrants, ethnic and racial)

While a number of significant improvements are implemented, many fundamental problems are not solved.
The technological development brought industrialised warfare with mass murder on an enormous scale. Information systems in many ways, do not deliver reliable information,
Financial systems are instable (1929 and 2008 stock market crash)
The enormous waste of financial resources to build weapon systems
The over-commercialism which ignores social and moral issues
There are still a great number of politicians who’s main aim is
self-enrichment instead of  improving the quality of life voor the community. 
There is a lack of cooperation between countries,
Polarisation between groups
Repressive political systems
Corruption of social / governmental institutes
Insufficient implementation of human rights
and many other areas      

So a great number of fundamental improvements is necessary.
In the second half of the 20^th century a movement which is called Postmodernism was a reaction to the modernistic philosophy.

 
VVVVVVV

The enthusiasm for reason in the Enlightenment is primarily not for the faculty of reason as an independent source of knowledge, which is embattled in the period, but rather for the human cognitive faculties generally;

If the founder of the rationalist strain of the Enlightenment is Descartes, then the founder of the empiricist strain is Francis Bacon (1561–1626). Though Bacon’s work belongs to the Renaissance, the revolution he undertook to effect in the sciences inspires and influences Enlightenment thinkers. The Enlightenment, as the age in which experimental natural science matures and comes into its own, admires Bacon as “the father of experimental philosophy.” Bacon’s revolution (enacted in, among other works, The New Organon, 1620) involves conceiving the new science as (1) founded on empirical observation and experimentation; (2) arrived at through the method of induction; and (3) as ultimately aiming at, and as confirmed by, enhanced practical capacities (hence
the Baconian motto, “knowledge is power”).

Of these elements of Bacon’s revolution, the point about method deserves special emphasis. Isaac Newton’s work, which stands as the great exemplar of the accomplishments of natural science for the eighteenth century, is, like Bacon’s, based on the inductive method. Whereas rationalist of the seventeenth century tend to conceive of scientific knowledge of nature as consisting in a system in which statements expressing the observable phenomena of nature are deduced from first principles, known a priori, Newton’s method begins with the observed phenomena of nature and reduces its multiplicity to unity by induction, that is, by finding mathematical laws or principles from which the observed phenomena can be derived or explained. The evident success of Newton’s “bottom-up” procedure contrasts sharply with the seemingly endless and fruitless conflicts among philosophers regarding the meaning and validity of first principles of reason, and this contrast naturally favors the rise of the Newtonian (or Baconian) method of acquiring knowledge of nature in the eighteenth century.

Rarely has a work with such intimidating scholarly pretentions exerted such radical and liberating influence in the culture.

Hume begins this argument by noting that, though rules or principles in demonstrative sciences are certain or infallible, given the fallibility of our faculties, our applications of such rules or principles in demonstrative inferences yield conclusions that cannot be regarded as certain or infallible. On reflection, our conviction in the conclusions of demonstrative reasoning must be qualified by an assessment of the likelihood that we made a mistake in our reasoning. Thus, Hume writes, “all knowledge degenerates into probability”

The commitment to careful observation and description of phenomena as the starting point of science, and then the success at explaining and accounting for observed phenomena through the method of induction, naturally leads to the development of new sciences for new domains in the Enlightenment.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/

The rationalist tradition of the Enlightenment,

VVVVV

Truth and falsehood
To be prepared for a revision and counterargument
To search for evidence
To generate practical applications
To search for cooperation

The modem sciences are among the most remarkable o f human achieve­ments and cultural treasures. Like others, they merit— and reward— respect­ful and scrupulous engagement. Sokal and Bricmont show how easily such  truisms can recede from view, and how harmful the consequences can be for  intellectual life and human affairs. They also provide a thoughtful and con­structive critical analysis of fundamental issues of empirical inquiry. It is a  timely and substantial contribution.” — Noam Chomsky

Evidence, reason, logic, tolerance, and civility were all integral parts of the modernist package of principles.

new levels of  prosperity

The basic moral test of a social system is its ability to provide for its people’s basic economic needs.

Commercialisation
Economic inequality
technocratic

 
The philosophes were exactly right that reason is the
foundation of civilization. Civilization’s rational progress, however, is anything but progress, for civilization is achieved  at the expense of morality.

 With the coming of the Great Crash in 1929 and the ensuing Depression, it had to be that at long last capitalism’s internal contradictions were manifesting themselves. Utilized productive  capacity plunged, unemployment skyrocketed, tension among
the classes increased dramatically, and as the months stretched   into years no recovery was in sight

But modern capitalist society is taking a technocratic
form, directing its conflictual energies toward creating machines   and corporate bureaucracies.

that women were being forced into poverty, but rather that as a group they had been held back from achieving economic  equality with men.

Contradictions and inconsistencies:
If all metanarratives are suspect because they lead to oppression, then can it not be equally maintained that postmodernism is itself a metanarrative and equally suspect?
If all knowledge claims are a grab for power, then are not postmodernism’s contentions equally motivated by a will-to-power?

Within postmodernism there is:
Rejection of logic
Rejection of morality, sees morality as  personal  
          Subjective preference
Rejection of quality standards
Rejection of meritocracy
Rejection of metanarratives, while being itself a metanarrative
 
Obscurantism
Evidence based worldview are here replaced with. ideological preconceptions
Obscurantism, sophistry, slogans, linguistic tricks, logical fallacies, fuzzy language, obscure language, changing the definition of words
This deals with mys­tification, deliberately obscure language, confused thinking, and  the misuse of scientific concepts.

248Again, one cannot  help being reminded of the emperor’s new clothes

Postmodernism which should be an approach on a higher level, became a regressive anti-philosophy which  throw away the baby and kept the bathwater.
While a correction of modernistic mistakes is necessary, what is now called Postmodernism has completely failed. 
  ,  

pre-modern
Modern thinkers start from nature—instead of starting with some form of traditionalism, which had been the characteristic starting point of pre-modern, Medieval philosophy. Modern thinkers stress that perception and reason are the human means of knowing nature—in contrast to the pre-modern reliance upon tradition and faith

Using scientific and ethical arguments that can be rationally evaluated by all the people involved

The type of approach in each domain of research  should depend upon the specific phenomena under investigation.

To evaluate the validity of a proposition on the basis of the facts and reasoning supporting it.

to realize that any theory must be supported, at least indirectly, by empirical evidence in order to be taken seri­ously

Godel’s theorem shows that there are many different kinds of arithmetic, each of which is equally valid.

“Mathematical truth is not determined arbitrarily by the rules of some ‘man-made’ formal system, but has an absolute nature, and lies beyond any such system of specifiable rules. Support for the Platonic viewpoint …was an important part of Godel’s initial motivations.”
― Roger Penrose, Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness

Verification the process of establishing the truth, accuracy, or validity of something.
to evaluate the validity of a proposition on the basis of the facts and reasoning supporting it
is experimentally verified to a high degree of precision 

If knowledge is defined in terms of criteria that are truly meaningful, reflecting how knowledge claims are actually advanced, challenged, and justified, then knowledge is open to all.

Evaluation
to evaluate the validity of a  proposition on the basis of the facts and reasoning supporting it

to realize that any theory must be supported, at least indirectly, by empirical evidence in order to be taken seri­ously

that important parts of reality are for­gotten simply because they fail to fit within the framework that
was posed a priori. Sadly, examples of scientism are abundant

To evaluate the validity of a proposition on the basis of the facts and reasoning supporting it

Polarisation: In psychological terms, polarization processes describe movement in individuals’ views toward opposite extremes.
division into two sharply contrasting groups or sets of opinions or beliefs.
the act of dividing something, especially something that contains different people or opinions, into two completely opposing groups:

VVVVV

Logical fallacies within  postmodernism

Not defining basic concepts properly

Not questioning basic assumptions

Constricted worldview
Making a false assumption based upon a constricted worldview.

Internal inconsistency
Description : in terms of a fallacious argument , two or more propositions are asserted that cannot both possibly be true . In a more general sense , holding two or more views/beliefs that cannot all be true together.

Obscurantism
The practice of deliberately preventing the facts or full details of something from becoming known .
Example : It’s just a brute fact .   

Exclusivist view
Ideological  exclusivism, or exclusivity, is the doctrine or belief that only one particular ideology or worldview is true. This is in contrast to philosophical pluralism, which believes that different thought systems provide valid responses to existence.

Polarisation
Division into two sharply contrasting groups or sets of opinions or beliefs.
Postmodernism is extremely polarising.

Dogmatism
Description: The tendency to lay down principles as incontrovertibly true , without consideration of evidence or the opinion of others.

Taboo: Unilaterally declaring certain arguments, standpoints or actions to be not open to discussion.

Lack of insight in underlying processes
Many religious concepts such as life after death, and so on, are highly speculative and without insight in underlying processes, there is a total lack of empirical perceptions, which occur e.g. within out of the body experiences .
 
Intolerance to other worldviews
Narrowmindedness
Dogmatic ideological views.

Association Fallacy:
Definition – Sometimes called “guilt by affiliation,” this happens when somebody connects a particular thought or drill to something or somebody negative so as to infer blame on another individual.

Moving the Goalposts:
Definition – This is when a challenge in an argument is changed after it has been met, in an attempt to catch one out, instead of conceding the point.

Slippery Slope:
Definition – The error happens when one contends that an exceptionally minor movement will unavoidably prompt great and frequently ludicrous conclusions.

No True Scotsman:
Definition – Instead of acknowledging that some members of a group do indeed have undesirable characteristics, the fallacy tries to enforce purity by redefining the group to exclude them.

False Analogy 
Comparing two things that are not similar.

No exceptions to the rule .
Simplistic rules or laws rarely take into consideration legitimate exceptions, and to ignore these exceptions is to bypass reason to preserve the illusion of a perfect law. People like simplicity and would often rather keep simplicity at the cost of rationality.

Not questioning the validity of one’s  validity claim
Not questioning the validity of one’s argument or position when new evidence is presented.
.
Alleged certainty.
Assuming a conclusion, when multiple interpretations are possible.

Ambiguity Fallacy
(also known as: ambiguous assertion, amphiboly, amphibology, semantical ambiguity, vagueness).

Description: When an unclear phrase (with multiple definitions) is used within the argument. Therefore, does not support the conclusion .
Some will say single words count for the ambiguity fallacy, but this is in fact a specific form of a fallacy known as equivocation.

Appeal to common Belief
Description :When the claim that most or many people in general or of a particular group accept a belief as true, is presented as evidence for the claim . Accepting another person’s belief, or many people’s beliefs , without demanding evidence as to why that person accepts the belief , is lazy thinking and a dangerous way to accept information .  

Appeal to Definition
Description: Wrong conclusion, based upon a limited or wrong definition or interpretation of a term.

Appeal  to Self- evident Truth
While somethings are self-evident, it is a claim which is not supported by argumentation.

Argument by Gibberish
Description :When incomprehensible jargon or plain incoherent gibberish is used to give the appearance of a strong argument , in place of evidence or valid reasons to accept the argument .
Example : Post modernistic chatter.

Argument  by Repetition
Description :Repeating an argument or a premise over and over again in place of better supporting evidence.

Argument by Selective Reading
Description: When a series of arguments or claims is made and the opponent acts as if the weakest argument was the best one made. This is a form of cherry  picking and very similar to the selective attention fallacy.

Avoiding the Issue
Description: When an arguer responds to an argument by not addressing the points of the argument. Unlike the strawman fallacy, in which avoiding the issue does not create an unrelated argument to divert attention, it simply avoids the argument.

Cherry Picking
Description : When only a selection of evidence is presented in order to persuade the audience to accept a position and evidence that would go against the position is withheld. The stronger the withheld evidence, the more fallacious the argument.

Contextomy
Description: Removing a passage from its surrounding matter with the intention  to distort its intended meaning.

Definist Fallacy
Description: Defining a term in such a way that makes one’s position much easier to defend.

False Dilemma
Description: When only two choices are presented while more choices exist, or a spectrum of possible choices exists between two extremes . False dilemmas are usually characterized by omission of choices.

Far-Fetched Hypothesis
Description: Offering a bizarre far-fetched) hypothesis as the correct explanation without first ruling out more mundane explanations.

Historian’s Fallacy
Description: Judging a person’s decision in the light of new information not available at the time.

Identity Fallacy
Description: When one’s argument is evaluated based on their physical or social identity, i.e., their social class, generation, ethnic group, gender or sexual orientation, profession, occupation or subgroup while the strength of the argument is independent of identity.

Jumping to Conclusions
Description: Drawing a conclusion without taking the time needed to investigate all parts of the argument.

Logic Chopping
Description: Using the technical tools of logic in an unhelpful and pedantic manner by focussing on trivial details, instead of directly addressing the main issue in dispute. Irrelevant overprecision .

Non Sequitur
Description: When the conclusion does not follow from the premises. In more informal reasoning, it can be when what is presented as evidence or reason, is irrelevant or adds very little support to the conclusion.

Red Herring
Description: Attempting to redirect the argument to another issue to which the person doing the redirecting can better respond. While it is similar to the avoiding the issue fallacy, the red herring is a deliberate diversion of attention with the intention of trying to abandon the original argument.

Reification
(also known as: abstraction, concretism, fallacy of misplaced concreteness, hypostatisation )
Description: When an abstract belief or hypothetical construct ) is treated as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity – when an idea is treated as if had a real existence .

Righteousness Fallacy.
Description: Assuming that just because a person’s intentions are good, they have the truth of facts on their side.

Selective Attention
Description: Focussing your attention on certain aspects of the argument while completely ignoring or missing other parts.
Example: Looking at scientific data , while ignoring social and moral implications.

Shifting of the Burdon of Proof
Description: Making a claim that needs justification, then demanding that the opponent justifies the opposite of the claim.

Shoehorning
Description: To interpret data so that it fits one’s prejudges.

Special Pleading  
Description: Applying standards , principles, and/or rules to other people or circumstances, making oneself or certain circumstances exempt from the same critical criteria, without providing adequate justification. Special pleading is often a result of strong emotional beliefs that interfere with reason.

Style over Substance
Description: When the arguer embellishes the argument with compelling language or rhetoric, and /or visual aesthetics .
Example: The use of rhetoric tricks and sophistry.

Subjectivist Fallacy
Description: Claiming something is true for one person, but not for someone else when, in fact, it is true for everyone (objective) as demonstrated by empirical evidence.

Willed Ignorance
Description : Refusing to change one’s mind or consider conflicting information based on a desire to maintain one’s existing beliefs.

Wishful Thinking
Description: When the desire for something to be true is used in place of/or  as evidence for the truthfulness of the claim. Wishful thinking, more as a cognitive bias  than a logical fallacy, can also cause one to evaluate evidence very differently based on the desired outcome.

Disregarding Known Science  .
Description: Ignoring scientific facts that are inconvenient to a position. This is better characterised as a cognitive bias or perhaps even a form of lying.

Bandwagon  Effect
Description: When one does something primarily because others are doing it.

Pseudo -certainty  Effect
Description: The tendency to perceive an outcome as certain while in fact it is uncertain.

Semmelweis Reflex
Description: A metaphor for the reflex-like tendency to reject new evidence or new knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs or paradigms.

There Is No Alternative fallacy  
Squashing critical thought by announcing that there is no realistic alternative to a given standpoint, status or action, ruling out any and all other options irrelevant and any further discussion is simply a waste of time.
Example: Monistic materialism .

Strawman Fallacy
Description: Substituting a person’s actual position or argument with a distorted , exaggerated, or  misrepresented version of the position of the argument.
.
Ad Hominem
Definition – This is an often misused  accusation. This fallacy is when someone uses an insult to discredit your argument. it is NOT just insulting someone. Equivocation
Definition – The fallacy of equivocation occurs when a key term or phrase in an argument is used in an ambiguous way, with one meaning in one portion of the argument and another meaning in another portion of the argument.

Appeal to Ridicule
Description: Presenting the argument in such a way that makes the argument look ridiculous, usually by misrepresenting  the argument or the use of exaggeration.

Generalising
Definition: to infer or form (a general principle, opinion, conclusion, etc.) from only a few facts, examples, or the like.

to give a general rather than a specific or special character or form to.

to make a statement that relates to many people, things, or conditions, esp. when based on limited facts

Especially to accept or reject a combined principle which is composed of different elements.

For example:
The quality of life is determined by many different factors
So to say: “My country is the best country to live in”, one should take all the different elements of the situation, (the set of circumstances, the state of affairs) into consideration and try to improve all the different elements of which a combined principle is composed of.
And remove or replace all the wrong elements, even if : “One’s country is the best country to live in”,

Capitalism which comprises different elements:
Not only an economic system but also a
Production system
Technology
Raw materials
Resources
Energy system
Distribution system
Standardisation
Financial system
Information
Advertising
Communication
Personal (workforce)
Free markets
Free trade
Level of

A system can have very positive and very negative elements at the same time:
Capitalism did put more people out of abject poverty and by increaing food production, strongly diminished death by starvation, it did increase living standards
This is not a small matter.

Capitalism if it isn’t supported by social systems and moral principles, can lead to an unfair Income distribution, environmental pollution and
over-commercialisation.

But to throw away a total economic system without to keep its valuable elements isn’t an intelligent approach

Nether are slogans, one cannot describe a situation or formulate a solution with a vocabulary of three words.

 

Di­verse domains of human thinking
To use validity claims which belong to different mental realms, does delegitimise the system

Revisionism

Revisionism may refer to:

• Historical revisionism, the critical re-examination of presumed historical facts and existing historiography
  • The “revisionists” school of thought in Soviet and Communist studies, as opposed to the Cold War “traditionalists” school
  • Historical negationism, concerted denial of claims accepted by mainstream historians, may purport to be historical revisionism but its methodologies have no basis in historiography/profession of history
  • Revisionist School of Islamic Studies, which questions whether the traditional accounts about Islam’s early times are reliable historical sources
• Revisionism (Ireland), an issue in Irish historiography
• Revisionism (Spain), a derogatory term used in Spanish historiographic debate
• Revisionist Zionism, a nationalist faction within the Zionist movement
• Marxist revisionism, a pejorative term used by some Marxists to describe ideas based on a revision of fundamental Marxist premises
• Fictional revisionism, the retelling of a story with substantial alterations in character or environment, to “revise” the view shown in the original work
• Territorial revisionism, a euphemism for revanchism or irredentism
• Revisionism theory, another word for reformism
• The reevaluation of one’s experiences with a hindsight bias

 

often derogatory

noun: revisionism

1. a policy of revision or modification, especially of Marxism on evolutionary socialist (rather than revolutionary) or pluralist principles.
   • the theory or practice of revising one’s attitude to a previously accepted situation or point of view.

“reconsideration of such figures is not just an attempt at revisionism”

Scapegoating
Scapegoat theory refers to the tendency to blame someone else for one’s own problems, a process that often results in feelings of prejudice toward the person or group that one is blaming. Scapegoating serves as an opportunity to explain failure or misdeeds, while maintaining one’s positive self-image.

Reactionary

Exclusion of other viewpoints

Resegregation
A form of regression that is promoted by people because it coincides with their own self-interests

Storytelling over evidence

Absence of logic, morality and gratitude  
Absence of dialogue, consensus through the exchange of ideas
Denying of what doesn’t fit the narrative
A discourse is based solely on vague analogies
Partiality and groupthink
Confuses facts with assertions of facts
Virtually unable to communicate with other

appear vague and subject to varying
         interpretations, others are unmistakable.